Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk | |
|---|---|
 Atatürk in 1932 | |
| 1stPresident of Turkey | |
| In office 29 October 1923 – 10 November 1938 | |
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | İsmet İnönü |
| Prime Minister of the Government of the Grand National Assembly | |
| In office 3 May 1920 – 24 January 1921 | |
| Deputy | Fevzi Çakmak |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | Fevzi Çakmak |
| Speaker of the Grand National Assembly | |
| In office 24 April 1920 – 29 October 1923 | |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | Fethi Okyar |
| 1stLeader of the Republican People's Party | |
| In office 9 September 1923 – 10 November 1938 | |
| Preceded by | Office established |
| Succeeded by | İsmet İnönü |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Ali Rıza oğlu Mustafa (Mustafa son of Ali Rıza) c. 1881 Salonica,Ottoman Empire |
| Died | 10 November 1938(aged 57) Istanbul,Turkey |
| Resting place | Ethnography Museum,Ankara(21 November 1938 – 10 November 1953) Anıtkabir,Ankara (since 10 November 1953) |
| Nationality | Ottoman, Turkish |
| Political party | Republican People's Party |
| Other political affiliations |
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| Spouse | Latife Uşaklıgil(1923–1925) |
| Parents |
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| Relatives | Makbule Atadan(sister) |
| Awards | List (24 medals) |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |
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| Branch/service | |
| Rank |
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| Commands | |
| Battles/wars | |
| Part ofa serieson |
| Progressivism |
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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,[a]also known asMustafa Kemal Pasha[b]until 1921, andGhazi Mustafa Kemal[c]from 1921 until theSurname Law of 1934[2](c.1881[d]– 10 November 1938), was a Turkishfield marshal,revolutionarystatesman, author, and thefounding fatherof theRepublic of Turkey,serving as its firstpresidentfrom 1923 untilhis deathin 1938. He undertook sweeping progressivereforms,which modernized Turkey into asecular,industrializing nation.[3][4][5]Ideologically asecularistandnationalist,his policiesand socio-political theories became known asKemalism(Atatürkism).[3]
Atatürk came to prominence for his role in securing the Ottoman Turkish victory at theBattle of Gallipoli(1915) duringWorld War I.[6]During this time, the Ottoman Empire perpetratedgenocidesagainst itsGreek,ArmenianandAssyrian subjects;while never involved, Atatürk's role in their aftermath was the subject of discussion. Following the defeat of theOttoman Empireafter World War I, he led theTurkish National Movement,which resisted mainland Turkey's partition among the victoriousAllied powers.Establishing aprovisional governmentin the present-day Turkish capitalAnkara(known in English at the time as Angora), he defeated the forces sent by the Allies, thus emerging victorious from what was later referred to as theTurkish War of Independence.He subsequently proceeded toabolish the sultanatein 1922 andproclaimed the foundation of the Turkish Republicin its place the following year.
As the president of the newly formed Turkish Republic, Atatürk initiated a rigorous program of political, economic, and cultural reforms with the ultimate aim of building a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country. He also introduced the Latin-basedTurkish alphabet,replacing the oldOttoman Turkish alphabet.Turkish women receivedequal civil and political rightsduring Atatürk's presidency.[7]In particular,women were given voting rightsin local elections by Act no. 1580 on 3 April 1930 and a few years later, in 1934, full universal suffrage.[8]His government carried out a policy ofTurkification,trying to create a homogeneous, unified and above allsecular nationunder the Turkish banner.[9][10][11]Under Atatürk, theminorities in Turkeywere ordered tospeak Turkishin public, but were allowed to maintain their own languages in private and within their own communities;[12]non-Turkishtoponymswere replaced and non-Turkish families were ordered to adopt a Turkish surname.[13][14]TheTurkish Parliamentgranted him the surname Atatürk in 1934, which means "Father of the Turks", in recognition of the role he played in building the modern Turkish Republic.[15]He diedon 10 November 1938 atDolmabahçe PalaceinIstanbul,at the age of 57;[16]he was succeeded as president by his long-time prime ministerİsmet İnönü,[17]and was honored with astate funeral.
In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by theUnited NationsandUNESCO,which declared itThe Atatürk Year in the Worldand adopted theResolution on the Atatürk Centennial,describing him as "the leader of the first struggle given againstcolonialismandimperialism"and a" remarkable promoter of the sense of understanding between peoples and durable peace between the nations of the world and that he worked all his life for the development of harmony and cooperation between peoples without distinction ".[18][19]Atatürk was also credited for hispeace-in-the-worldoriented foreign policy and friendship with neighboring countries such as Iran, Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Greece, as well as the creation of theBalkan Pactthat resisted the expansionist aggressions ofFascist ItalyandTsarist Bulgaria.[20]
Name
Atatürk was bornMustafa.His second nameKemal(meaning "perfection" or "maturity" inArabic) was given to him by his mathematics teacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi. According toAfet İnan,his teacher gave this name "in admiration of [Atatürk's] capability and maturity."[21][22]According to other sources, his teacher wanted to distinguish Atatürk from another student who was also named Mustafa.[23][24]Andrew Mangosuggests that he may have chosen the name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poetNamık Kemal.[25]According to Alkan, Atatürk seems to have embraced the name Kemal during his army years.[26]
After receiving thesurnameAtatürk on his first ID card in 1934, his name appeared as Kemal Atatürk, while thegiven nameMustafa had disappeared altogether. In February 1935, Atatürk began to use theOld Turkic[27]name Kamâl. According toTarama Dergisi(1934),kamalmeant "fortification", "fortress", "army", and "shield".[28]On 4 February 1935, the government's official news agencyAnadolu Agencygave the following explanation:
According to our intelligence, the name 'Kamâl' that Atatürk bears is not an Arabic word, nor does it have the meaning by the Arabic word kemal ['maturity', 'perfection']. Atatürk's given name, which is being retained, is 'Kamâl', the Turkish meaning of which is army and fortress. As the circumflex accent on the final 'â' softens the 'l' the pronunciation closely approximates that of the Arabic 'Kemal'.[29]
— Anadolu Agency
However, Atatürk returned to the old spelling of Kemal from May 1937 and onwards. To make a soft transition, he avoided using the name as much as he could, either by not using it at all or by signing documents as 'K. Atatürk'. An official explanation was never given, but it is widely agreed that the issue with Atatürk's name was linked to theTurkish language reform.[26]
Early life
Atatürk was born either in the Ahmet Subaşı neighbourhood or at a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane Street (now Apostolou Pavlou Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood in Salonica (Selanik),[30]Ottoman Empire(Thessalonikiin present-dayGreece). His parents wereAli Rıza Efendi,a military officer originally fromKodžadžik(Kocacık), title deed clerk and lumber trader, andZübeyde Hanım.Only one of Mustafa's siblings, a sister namedMakbule (Atadan)survived childhood; she died in 1956.[31]
Claims and theories about Atatürk's ancestry are strikingly varied and contrasting.[32]According to Andrew Mango, his family was Muslim,Turkish-speakingand precariously middle-class.[33]His father Ali Rıza is thought to have been ofAlbanianorigin by some authors;[34][35][36][37]however, according toFalih Rıfkı Atay,Vamık D. Volkan,Norman Itzkowitz,Müjgân Cunbur, Numan Kartal and Hasan İzzettin Dinamo, Ali Rıza's ancestors wereTurks,ultimately descending fromSökeinAydın ProvinceofAnatolia.[38][39][40][41][42][43]His mother Zübeyde is thought to have been ofTurkishorigin,[35][36]and according toŞevket Süreyya Aydemir,she was ofTurkicYörükancestry.[44]According to some various claims, she descended fromAlbanians,[45]MacedonianTorbeši,[46]orMuslim Bulgarians.[32]Due to the largeJewishcommunity of Salonica in the Ottoman period, many of hisIslamistopponents who were disturbed byhis reformsclaimedthat Atatürk had JewishDönmeancestors.[47]
In his early years, his mother encouraged Atatürk to attend a religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School (a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. When he was seven years old, his father died.[48]His mother wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Atatürk took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School (Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in theMonastir Military High School(in modernBitola,North Macedonia) where he excelled at mathematics.[49]On 14 March 1899,[50]he enrolled at theOttoman Military Academyin the neighbourhood of Pangaltı[51]within theŞişlidistrict of the Ottoman capital cityConstantinople(modernIstanbul) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from theOttoman Military Collegein Constantinople on 11 January 1905.[50]
Military career
Early years
Shortly after graduation, he was arrested by the police for his anti-monarchist activities. Following confinement for several months he was released only with the support of Rıza Pasha, his former school director.[52]After his release, Atatürk was assigned to theFifth Armybased inDamascusas aStaffCaptain[50]in the company ofAli Fuat(Cebesoy) andLütfi Müfit(Özdeş).[53]He joined a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by a merchantMustafa Elvan(Cantekin) calledVatan ve Hürriyet( "Motherland and Liberty" ). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to the rank ofSenior Captain(Kolağası) and on 13 October 1907, was assigned to the headquarters of theThird ArmyinManastır.[54]He joined theCommittee of Union and Progress,with membership number 322, although in later years he became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of, the policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On 22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railways inEastern Rumelia(Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi).[54]In July 1908, he played a role in theYoung Turk Revolutionwhich seized power from SultanAbdülhamid IIand restored theconstitutional monarchy.
He was proposing depoliticization in the army, a proposal which was disliked by the leaders of the CUP. As a result, he was sent away toTripolitania Vilayet(presentLibya,then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908.[52]According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission.[55]He suppressed the revolt and returned to Constantinople in January 1909.
In April 1909 in Constantinople, a group of soldiers began a counter-revolution (see31 March Incident). Atatürk was instrumental in suppressing the revolt.[56]
In 1910, he was called to theOttoman provinces in Albania.[57][58]At that timeIsa Boletiniwas leading Albanian uprisings inKosovo,and there wererevolts in Albaniaas well.[59][60]In 1910, Atatürk met withEqrem Vlora,the Albanian lord, politician, writer, and one of the delegates of theAlbanian Declaration of Independence.[61][62]
Later, in the autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman military observers who attended thePicardiearmy manoeuvres in France,[63]and in 1911, served at the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople for a short time.
Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)
In 1911, he volunteered to fight in theItalo-Turkish War[64]in the OttomanTripolitania Vilayet(present-dayLibya).[65]He served mainly in the areas nearDernaandTobruk.[64]The invading Italian army had a strength of 150,000 men;[66]it was opposed by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks.[67]A short time beforeItalydeclared war, many of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province ofYemen Vilayetto put down the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with inadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya. Britain, which controlled theOttoman provinces of Egypt and Sudan,did not allow additional Ottoman troops to reach Libya through Egypt. Ottoman soldiers like Atatürk went to Libya either dressed as Arabs (risking imprisonment if noticed by the British authorities in Egypt) or by the very few available ferries (the Italians, who had superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes toTripoli). However, despite all the hardships, Atatürk's forces in Libya managed to repel the Italians on a number of occasions, such as at theBattle of Tobrukon 22 December 1911.
During the Battle of Derna on 16–17 January 1912, while Atatürk was assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces; alimestonesplinter from a damaged building's rubble struck Atatürk's left eye, causing permanent tissue damage, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; he attempted to leave theRed Crescent's health facilities after only two weeks, but when his eye's situation worsened, he had to return and resume treatment. On 6 March 1912, Atatürk became the Commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Atatürk,Enver Bey,Fethi Bey,and the other Ottoman military commanders in Libya had to return toOttoman Europefollowing the outbreak of theBalkan Warson 8 October 1912. Having lost the war, the Ottoman government had to surrenderTripolitania,Fezzan,andCyrenaica(three provinces forming present-day Libya) to theKingdom of Italyin theTreaty of Lausanne (1912)signed ten days later, on 18 October 1912. Since 1923, historians have preferred to name this treaty as the "Treaty of Ouchy", after theChâteau d'OuchyinLausannewhere it was signed, to distinguish it from the laterTreaty of Lausanne (1923)signed between theAllies of World War Iand theGrand National Assembly of TurkeyinAnkara(at that time known as Angora).[68]
Balkan Wars (1912–13)
On 1 December 1912, Atatürk arrived at his new headquarters on theGallipolipeninsula and, during theFirst Balkan War,he took part in the amphibious landing atBulairon the coast ofThraceunderBinbaşıFethi Bey,but this offensive was repulsed during theBattle of BulairbyGeorgi Todorov's 7th Rila Infantry Division[69]under the command ofStiliyan Kovachev'sBulgarian Fourth Army.[70]
In June 1913, during theSecond Balkan War,he took part in the Ottoman Army forces[71]commanded byKaymakamEnver Beythat recoveredDimetokaandEdirne(Adrianople, the capital city of theOttoman Empirebetween 1365 and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of easternThracefrom the Bulgarians.
In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché toall Balkan states(his office was inSofia,Bulgaria) and promoted to the rank ofKaymakam(Lieutenant Colonel/Colonel) on 1 March 1914.[50]While in Bulgaria, he met with Dimitrina Kovacheva, the daughter of Bulgarian generalStiliyan Kovachev(against whose forces he had fought during theBalkan Wars), who had recently completed her education inSwitzerland,during aNew Year's Eveball in Sofia and fell in love with her.[72]The two danced at the ball and started to secretly date in the following days.[72]Atatürk twice asked Dimitrina's parents for their permission to marry her (the second time was in 1915, duringWorld War I) and was twice refused, which left him with a lifelong sadness.[72]
First World War (1914–18)
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered theEuropeanandMiddle Eastern theatresof World War I allied with theCentral Powers.Atatürk was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to theFifth Armyduring theBattle of Gallipoli.He became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack, and held his position until they retreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Atatürk served inEdirneuntil 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command of theXVI Corpsof theSecond Armyand sent to theCaucasus Campaignafter the massive Russian offensive had reached key Anatolian cities. On 7 August, he rallied his troops and mounted a counteroffensive.[73]Two of his divisions capturedBitlisandMuş,upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command.[74]
Following this victory, theCUPgovernment in Constantinople proposed to establish a new army inHejaz(Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi) and appoint Atatürk to its command, but he refused the proposal and this army was never established.[63]Instead, on 7 March 1917, Atatürk was promoted from the command of the XVI Corps to the overall command of the Second Army, although theCzar's armieswere soon withdrawn when theRussian Revolutionerupted.[63][73]
In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of theSeventh Army,replacingFevzi Pashaon 7 August 1917, who was under the command of the German generalErich von Falkenhayn'sYildirim Army Group(after the British forces of GeneralEdmund AllenbycapturedJerusalemin December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced byOtto Liman von Sanderswho became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.)[63]Atatürk did not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together withMiralay İsmet Bey,wrote a report toGrand VizierTalaat Pasharegarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front. However, Talaat Pasha ignored their observations and refused their suggestion to form a stronger defensive line to the north, inOttoman Syria(in parts of theBeirut Vilayet,Damascus Vilayet,andAleppo Vilayet), with Turks instead of Germans in command.[63]Following the rejection of his report, Atatürk resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople.[63]There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince (and future sultan)Mehmed Vahideddinduring his train trip toAustria-Hungaryand Germany.[63]While in Germany, Atatürk visited the German lines on theWestern Frontand concluded that theCentral Powerswould soon lose the war.[63]He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to KaiserWilhelm IIand his high-ranking generals in person.[63]During the return trip, he briefly stayed inKarlsbadandViennafor medical treatment between 30 May and 28 July 1918.[63]
WhenMehmed VIbecame the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Atatürk to Constantinople, and after several meetings in the months July and August 1918, reassigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine.[75]Atatürk arrived inAleppoon 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters inNablus.The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On 19 September, at the beginning of theBattle of Megiddo,the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank but fell apart and Liman Pasha ordered the Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to theJordan River.The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River but wasdestroyed by British aerial bombardmentduring its retreat from Nablus on 21 September 1918.[76]Nevertheless, Atatürk managed to form a defence line to the north ofAleppo.According toLord Kinross,Atatürk was the only Turkish general in the war who never suffered a defeat.[77]
The war ended with theArmistice of Mudroswhich was signed on 30 October 1918, and all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire were granted ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, Atatürk was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. Atatürk organized the distribution of weapons to the civilians inAntepin case of a defensive conflict against the invading Allies.[63]
Atatürk's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the Ottoman troops left behind to the south of the defensive line. In early November 1918, the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved, and Atatürk returned to anoccupied Constantinople,the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918.[63]For a period of time, he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War (Harbiye Nezareti) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919.[63]Along the established lines of thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire,theAllies(British, Italian, French and Greek forces) occupiedAnatolia.The occupation of Constantinople, followed by theoccupation of İzmir(the two largest Ottoman cities at the time) sparked the establishment of theTurkish National Movementand the Turkish War of Independence.[78]
Ottoman genocides (1913–1924) and Atatürk
At the time of thelate Ottoman genocidesreportedly committed by the CUP and the declining Ottoman Empire, but nowcontroversial,Atatürk was a member of the CUP, and to that extent, aYoung Turk,but so had manyArabs,Albanians,Jews,and initially,ArmeniansandGreeks,as it was then simply an anti-Abdul Hamidmovement.[79]As for the actual occurrences of the genocides, Atatürk had since divested from the movement and was serving as a relatively junior Lieutenant Colonel fighting inGallipoliandWestern Thraceduring theArmenian genocide.Historical evidence proves decisively that he was not involved with the killings, and that he later went on to condemn them.[80]One such explicit condemnation was in September 1919, when Atatürk met with theUnited States ArmyGeneralJames Harbord,the leader of theHarbord Commissioninto the genocides, inSivas.Harbord would later recall that Atatürk told him of his disapproval of the Armenian genocide, and that he had allegedly stated that "the massacre and deportation of Armenians was the work of a small committee who had seized power", rather than by the government in actuality.[81][page needed]In 1920, before the Turkish Parliament, Atatürk called the genocides a "shameful act" and didn't publicly deny them at that time.[80]
Atatürk's relations withEnver Pasha,a key perpetrator of the genocides, has also been controversial but poorly understood. While the two men may have been close at times, Atatürk held a personal dislike of Enver Pasha; he once said to a confidant that Enver Pasha was a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin.[82]
The primary concern towards Atatürk was the Turkish government's involvement with and reaction to theburning of Smyrnain 1922, which saw Muslim Turkish mobs and paramilitaries openly engaged in mass murder of Greeks and Armenians and destroy the city's Greek and Armenian quarters, killing an estimated 100,000 people. Whether these atrocities, including the fire, was part of the genocides of Asia Minor's Christian minorities that the Turkish army and government carried out during WWI is unclear,responsibilityremains a contentious debate and it is unclear if the Turks entered the city with these intentions. Many Turkish apologists argue that the regular Turkish Army did not play a role in these events. At the time, Atatürk was commander of the Turkish armed forces, and sent a telegram to the Minister of Foreign AffairsYusuf Kemalthat described the official version of events in the city. In the telegram, he alleged the Greek and Armenian minorities had "pre-arranged plans" to "destroy İzmir".[83]There are allegations[by whom?]Atatürk chose to do little about the Greek and Armenian victims of the fires caused by Muslim rioters in order to rebuild the city as Turkish-dominatedİzmir.[84]
Although Atatürk was critical of the Armenian genocide and Kemalists had pledged to prosecute those involved with the genocide, on March 31, 1923, a general amnesty was declared for those who had been convicted of court-martial and by the municipal courts after the defeat of the Ottoman forces. Turkey also refused to deliver those involved with the crimes to the Allies, arguing that it would violate Turkish sovereignty. Some of the war criminals were also invited to the government of the new Turkish republic.[85]
Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)
On 30 April 1919, Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ( "Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan" )MirlivaAtatürk was assigned as the inspector of theNinth Army Troops Inspectorateto reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security.[86]On 19 May 1919, he reachedSamsun.His first goal was the establishment of an organizednational movementagainst the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued theAmasya Circular,declaring the independence of the country was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July, and the Ottoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. ButKâzım Karabekirand other military commanders active in Eastern Anatolia followed Atatürk's lead and acknowledged him as their leader.[87]
On 4 September 1919, he assembled acongressinSivas.Those who opposed the Allies in various provinces in Turkey issued a declaration namedMisak-ı Millî( "National Pact" ). Atatürk was appointed as the head of the executive committee of the Congress,[88]which gave him the legitimacy he needed for his future politics.[89][88]
Thelast electionto theOttoman parliamentheld in December 1919 gave a sweeping majority to candidates of the "Association for Defence of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia" (Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti), headed by Atatürk, who himself remained in Angora, now known asAnkara.The fourth (and last) term of the parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forces on 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted theMisak-ı Millî( "National Pact" ). Atatürk called for a national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Angora.[90]– the "Grand National Assembly"(GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with Atatürk asthe speaker;this act effectively created the situation ofdiarchyin the country.[91]In May 1920, the power struggle between the two governments led to a death sentence in absentia for Atatürk by theTurkish courts-martial.[92]Halide Edib(Adıvar) andAli Fuat(Cebesoy) were also sentenced to death alongside Atatürk.[93]
On 10 August 1920, the OttomanGrand VizierDamat Ferid Pashasigned theTreaty of Sèvres,finalizing plans for thepartitioning of the Ottoman Empire,including the regions that Turkish nationals viewed as their heartland. Atatürk insisted on the country's complete independence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majority on "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army. The GNA army faced theCaliphate armypropped up by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting theArmenian forcesin theEastern Frontand theGreek forcesadvancing eastward fromSmyrna(today known asİzmir) that theyhad occupiedin May 1919, on theWestern Front.[94]
The GNA military successes against theDemocratic Republic of Armeniain the autumn of 1920 and later against the Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the Kemalists from the RussianBolshevikgovernment from the autumn of 1920 onwards.[95]
After a series of battles during theGreco-Turkish War,the Greek army advanced as far as theSakarya River,just eighty kilometers west of Ankara. On 5 August 1921, Atatürk was promoted tocommander in chiefof the forces by the GNA.[96]The ensuingBattle of the Sakaryawas fought from 23 August–13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, Atatürk was given the rank ofMareşaland the title ofGaziby theGrand National Assemblyon 19 September 1921. The Allies, ignoring the extent of Atatürk's successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Angora, but the proposal was rejected. In August 1922, Atatürk launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines atAfyonkarahisarin theBattle of Dumlupınar,and Turkish forces regained control of İzmir on 9 September 1922.[97]On 10 September 1922, Atatürk sent a telegram to theLeague of Nationsstating that the Turkish population was so worked up that theAnkara Governmentwould not be responsible for theensuingmassacres.[98]
Establishment of the Republic of Turkey
TheConference of Lausannebegan on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented byİsmet İnönüof the GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty,[99]such as the control of Turkish finances, theCapitulations,theStraitsand other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues.[74]On 24 July 1923, theTreaty of Lausannewas signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey.
On 29 October 1923, the Republic of Turkey wasproclaimed.[100]Since then,Republic Dayhas been celebrated as a national holiday on that date.[101]
Presidency
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With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Atatürk's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of thefirst caliphs."[102]Atatürk placedFevzi Çakmak,Kâzım Özalp,andİsmet İnönüin political positions where they could institute hisreforms.He capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as a Muslim part of a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. This had a positive influence onhuman capitalbecause from then on, what mattered at school was science and education; Islam was concentrated in mosques and religious places.[103]
Domestic policies
Atatürk's driving goal was the complete independence of the country.[104]He clarified his position:
...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in all matters. Being deprived of independence in any of these is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence.[105]
He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economic aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone of legislative, judicial, and economic structures. Though he was later idealized by some as an originator of sweeping reforms, many of his reformist ideas were already common in Ottoman intellectual circles at the turn of the 20th century and were expressed more openly after theYoung Turk Revolution.[106]
Atatürk created abannerto mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Each change was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to as the "Six Arrows", orKemalism.Kemalism is based on Atatürk's conception ofrealismandpragmatism.[107]The fundamentals of nationalism, populism, andstatismwere all defined under the Six Arrows. These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them unique was that these interrelated fundamentals were explicitly formulated for Turkey's needs. A good example is the definition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantly Christian states.
Emergence of the state, 1923–1924
Atatürk's private journal entries dated before the establishment of the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of the sovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkish revolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottoman heritage.[108]For instance, they madeAnkara(as Angora has been known in English since 1930), the country's new capital and reformed theTurkish postal service.Once a provincial town deep in Anatolia, the city was thus turned into the center of the independence movement. Atatürk wanted a "direct government by the Assembly"[109]and visualized arepresentative democracy,parliamentary sovereignty,where the National Parliament would be the ultimate source of power.[109]
In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the country needed an immense amount of reconstruction, and "direct government by the Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges from the supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such ascommunismandfascism.Atatürk saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both.[110]He prevented the spread into Turkey of thetotalitarianparty rule which held sway in the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy.[111]Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means of eliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to the instability of new ideologies and competing factions.[112]Under Atatürk, the arrest process known as the1927 Detentions(1927 Tevkifatı) was launched, and a widespread arrest policy was put in place against theCommunist Party of Turkeymembers. Communist political figures such asHikmet Kıvılcımlı,Nâzım Hikmet,and Şefik Hüsnü were tried and sentenced to prison terms. Then, in 1937, a delegation headed by Atatürk decided to censor the writings of Kıvılcımlı as harmful communist propaganda.[113][114][115]
The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by Atatürk.[116]The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that was based on a general ballot.[116]Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It had the right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislative power, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, served as an organ of scrutiny under theTurkish Constitution of 1921.[116]TheTurkish Constitution of 1924set a looseseparation of powersbetween the legislative and the executive organs of the state, whereas the separation of these two within the judiciary system was a strict one. Atatürk, then the President, occupied a dominant position in this political system.
The one-party regime was establishedde factoin 1925 after the adoption of the 1924 constitution. The only political party of the GNA was the "People's Party", founded by Atatürk on 9 September 1923. (But according to the party culture the foundation date was the opening day of Sivas Congress on 4 September 1919). On 10 November 1924, it was renamedCumhuriyet Halk FırkasıorRepublican People's Party(the wordfırkawas replaced by the wordpartiin 1935).
Civic independence and the Caliphate, 1924–1925
The abolition of thecaliphateand other cultural reforms were met with fierce opposition. The conservative elements were not appreciative, and they launched attacks on the Kemalist reformists.[117]This was an important dimension in Atatürk's drive to reform the political system and to promote national sovereignty. By the consensus of the Muslim majority in early centuries, the caliphate was the core political concept ofSunni Islam.[118]Abolishing the sultanate was easier because the survival of the caliphate at the time satisfied the partisans of the sultanate. This produced a split system with the new republic on one side and an Islamic form of government with the Caliph on the other side, and Atatürk and İnönü worried that "it nourished the expectations that the sovereign would return under the guise of Caliph."[119]CaliphAbdülmecid IIwas elected after the abolition of the sultanate (1922).
The caliph had his own personal treasury and also had a personal service that included military personnel; Atatürk said that there was no "religious" or "political" justification for this. He believed that Caliph Abdülmecid II was following in the steps of the sultans in domestic and foreign affairs: accepting of and responding to foreign representatives and reserve officers, and participating in official ceremonies and celebrations.[120]He wanted to integrate the powers of the caliphate into the powers of the GNA. His initial activities began on 1 January 1924, when[120]İnönü, Çakmak, and Özalp consented to the abolition of the caliphate. The caliph made a statement to the effect that he would not interfere with political affairs.[117]On 1 March 1924, at the Assembly, Atatürk said:
The religion of Islam will be elevated if it will cease to be a political instrument, as had been the case in the past.[121]
On 3 March 1924, the caliphate wasofficially abolishedand its powers within Turkey were transferred to the GNA. Other Muslim nations debated the validity of Turkey's unilateralabolition of the caliphateas they decided whether they should confirm the Turkish action or appoint a new caliph.[117]A "Caliphate Conference" was held inCairoin May 1926 and a resolution was passed declaring the caliphate "a necessity in Islam", but failed to implement this decision.[117]
Two other Islamic conferences were held inMecca(1926) andJerusalem(1931), but failed to reach a consensus.[117]Turkey did not accept the re-establishment of the caliphate and perceived it as an attack to its basic existence. Meanwhile, Atatürk and the reformists continued their own way.[122]
On 8 April 1924,shariacourts were abolished with the law "Mehakim-i Şer'iyenin İlgasına ve Mehakim Teşkilatına Ait Ahkamı Muaddil Kanun".[123][124]
Educational reform
The removal of the caliphate was followed by an extensive effort to establish the separation of governmental and religious affairs. Education was the cornerstone in this effort. In 1923, there were three main educational groups of institutions. The most common institutions weremedresesbased on Arabic, the Qur'an, and memorization. The second type of institution was idadî and sultanî, the reformist schools of theTanzimatera. The last group included colleges and minority schools in foreign languages that used the latest teaching models in educating pupils. The old medrese education was modernized.[125]Atatürk changed the classical Islamic education for a vigorously promoted reconstruction of educational institutions.[125]He linked educational reform to the liberation of the nation fromdogma,which he believed was more important than the Turkish War of Independence. He declared:
Today, our most important and most productive task is the national education [unification and modernization] affairs. We have to be successful in national education affairs and we shall be. The liberation of a nation is only achieved through this way. "[126]
In the summer of 1924, Atatürk invited American educational reformerJohn Deweyto Ankara to advise him on how to reform Turkish education.[125]Hispublic educationreforms aimed to prepare citizens for roles in public life through increasing public literacy. He wanted to institute compulsory primary education for both girls and boys; since then this effort has been an ongoing task for the republic. He pointed out that one of the main targets ofeducation in Turkeyhad to be raising a generation nourished with what he called the "public culture". The state schools established a common curriculum which became known as the "unification of education".
Unification of education was put into force on 3 March 1924 by the Law on Unification of Education (No. 430). With the new law, education became inclusive, organized on a model of the civil community. In this new design, all schools submitted their curriculum to the "Ministry of National Education",a government agency modeled after other countries' ministries of education. Concurrently, the republic abolished the two ministries and made clergy subordinate to thedepartment of religious affairs,one of the foundations ofsecularism in Turkey.The unification of education under one curriculum ended "clerics or clergy of the Ottoman Empire", but was not the end of religious schools in Turkey; they were moved to higher education until later governments restored them to their former position in secondary after Atatürk's death.
Western attire
Beginning in the fall of 1925, Atatürk encouraged the Turks to wearmodern European attire.[127]He was determined to force the abandonment of the sartorial traditions of the Middle East and finalize a series of dress reforms, which were originally started byMahmud II.[127]Thefezwas established by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of the Ottoman Empire's modernization effort. TheHat Law of 1925introduced the use of Western-style hats instead of the fez. Atatürk first made the hat compulsory for civil servants.[127]The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees were passed during his lifetime; many civil servants adopted the hat willingly. In 1925, Atatürk wore aPanama hatduring a public appearance inKastamonu,one of the most conservative towns in Anatolia, to explain that the hat was the headgear of civilized nations. The last part of reform on dress emphasized the need to wear modern Western suits with neckties as well asFedoraand Derby-style hats instead of antiquated religion-based clothing such as the veil and turban in theLaw Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934.
Even though he personally promoted modern dress for women, Atatürk never made specific reference to women's clothing in the law, as he believed that women would adapt to the new clothing styles of their own free will. He was frequently photographed on public business with his wifeLâtife Uşaklıgil,who covered her head in accordance with Islamic tradition. He was also frequently photographed on public business with women wearing modern Western clothes. But it was Atatürk's adopted daughters,Sabiha GökçenandAfet İnan,who provided the real role model for the Turkish women of the future. He wrote: "The religious covering of women will not cause difficulty... This simple style [of headcovering] is not in conflict with the morals and manners of our society."[128]
Religious insignia
On 30 August 1925, Atatürk's view on religious insignia used outside places of worship was introduced in hisKastamonu speech.This speech also had another position. He said:
In the face of knowledge, science, and of the whole extent of radiant civilization, I cannot accept the presence in Turkey's civilized community of people primitive enough to seek material and spiritual benefits in the guidance of sheiks. The Turkish republic cannot be a country of sheiks, dervishes, and disciples. The best, the truest order is the order of civilization. To be a man it is enough to carry out the requirements of civilization. The leaders of dervish orders will understand the truth of my words, and will themselves close down their lodges [tekke] and admit that their disciplines have grown up.[129][130]
On 2 September, the government issued a decree closing down allSufiorders, thetekkesand other religious ideological lodges. Atatürk ordered thedervishlodges to be converted to museums, such asMevlana Museumin Konya. The institutional expression of religious ideologies became illegal in Turkey; a politically neutral form of any religious ideology, functioning as social associations, was permitted to exist.[131]
Opposition to Atatürk in 1924–1927
In 1924, while the "Issue of Mosul"was on the table,Sheikh Saidbegan to organize theSheikh Said Rebellion.Sheikh Said was a wealthy Kurdishtribal chiefof a localNaqshbandiorder inDiyarbakır.He emphasized the issue of religion; he not only opposed the abolition of the Caliphate, but also the adoption of civil codes based on Western models, the closure of religious orders, the ban on polygamy, and the new obligatory civil marriage. Sheikh stirred up his followers against the policies of the government, which he considered anti-Islamic. In an effort to restore Islamic law, Sheik's forces moved through the countryside, seized government offices and marched on the important cities ofElazığandDiyarbakır.[132]Members of the government saw the Sheikh Said Rebellion as an attempt at a counter-revolution. They urged immediate military action to prevent its spread. With the support of Atatürk, the acting prime ministerAli Fethi (Okyar)was replaced withİsmet Pasha (İnönü),who on 3 March 1925 ordered the invocation of the "Law for the Maintenance of Order" in order to deal with the rebellion. It gave the government exceptional powers and included the authority to shut down subversive groups.[133]The law was repealed in March 1927.[134]
There were also parliamentarians in the GNA who were not happy with these changes[who?].So many members were denounced as opposition sympathizers at a private meeting of theRepublican People's Party(CHP) that Atatürk expressed his fear of being among the minority in his own party.[135]He decided not to purge this group.[135]After acensure motiongave the chance to have a breakaway group,Kâzım Karabekir,along with his friends, established such a group on 17 October 1924. The censure became a confidence vote at the CHP for Atatürk. On 8 November, the motion was rejected by 148 votes to 18, and 41 votes were absent.[135]The CHP held all but one seat in the parliament. After the majority of the CHP chose him,[135]Atatürk said, "the Turkish nation is firmly determined to advance fearlessly on the path of the republic, civilization and progress".[135]
On 17 November 1924, the breakaway group established theProgressive Republican Party(PRP) with 29 deputies and the first multi-party system began. Some of Atatürk's closest associates who had supported him in the early days of the War of Independence such asRauf Bey(later Rauf Orbay),Refet Pasha,andAli Fuat Pasha(later Ali Fuat Cebesoy) were among the members of the new party. The PRP's economic program suggested liberalism, in contrast to thestatismof the CHP, and its social program was based on conservatism in contrast to themodernismof the CHP. Leaders of the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle, but had different opinions on the cultural revolution and the principle ofsecularism.[136]The PRP was not against Atatürk's main positions as declared in its program; they supported establishing secularism in the country and the civil law, or as stated, "the needs of the age" (article 3) and the uniform system of education (article 49).[137]These principles were set by the leaders at the onset. The only legal opposition became a home for all kinds of differing views.
During 1926, aplot to assassinate Atatürkwas uncovered in Smyrna (İzmir). It originated with a former deputy who had opposed the abolition of the Caliphate. What originally was an inquiry into the planners shifted to a sweeping investigation. Ostensibly, its aims were to uncover subversive activities, but in truth, the investigation was used to undermine those disagreeing with Atatürk's cultural reforms. The investigation brought a number of political activists before the tribunal, including Karabekir, the leader of the PRP. A number of surviving leaders of theCommittee of Union and Progress,includingMehmet Cavid,Ahmed Şükrü, and İsmail Canbulat, were found guilty of treason and hanged.[138]Because the investigation found a link between the members of the PRP and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, the PRP was dissolved following the outcomes of the trial. The pattern of organized opposition was broken; this action was to be the only broad political purge during Atatürk's presidency. Atatürk's statement, "My mortal body will turn into dust, but the Republic of Turkey will last forever," was regarded as a will after the assassination attempt.[139]
Modernization efforts, 1926–1930
In the years following 1926, Atatürk introduced a radical departure from previous reformations established by the Ottoman Empire.[140]For the first time in history, Islamic law was separated from secular law and restricted to matters of religion.[140]He stated:
We must liberate our concepts of justice, our laws and our legal institutions from the bonds which, even though they are incompatible with the needs of our century, still hold a tight grip on us.[141]
On 1 March 1926, the Turkishpenal code,modelled after the Italian penal code, was passed. On 4 October 1926,Islamic courtswere closed. Establishing the civic law needed time, so Atatürk delayed the inclusion of the principle oflaïcité(the constitutional principle of secularism in France) until 5 February 1937.
In keeping with the Islamic practice ofsex segregation,Ottoman practice discouraged social interaction between men and women. Atatürk began developing social reforms to address this issue very early, as was evident in his personal journal. He and his staff discussed issues such as abolishing theveiling of womenand integrating women into the outside world. His plans to surmount the task were written in his journal in November 1915:
The social change can come by (1) educating capable mothers who are knowledgeable about life; (2) giving freedom to women; (3) a man can change his morals, thoughts, and feelings by leading a common life with a woman; as there is an inborn tendency towards the attraction of mutual affection.[142]
Atatürk needed a new civil code to establish his second major step of giving freedom to women. The first part was the education of girls, a feat established with the unification of education. On 4 October 1926, the newTurkish civil code,modelled after theSwiss Civil Code,was passed. Under the new code, women gained equality with men in such matters as inheritance and divorce, since Atatürk did not consider gender a factor in social organization. According to his view, society marched towards its goal with men and women united. He believed that it was scientifically impossible for Turkey to achieve progress and become civilized if Ottoman gender separation persisted.[143]During a meeting he declaimed:
To the women:Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal.
To the men:If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West.[144]
Additionally, the Kemalistone-party period of Turkey's labor participation rate was as high as 70%. The participation rate continued to decline after the democratization of Turkey due to the backlash of conservative norms in Turkish society.[145]
In 1927, theState Art and Sculpture Museum(Ankara Resim ve Heykel Müzesi) opened its doors. The museum highlightedsculpture,which was rarely practised in Turkey due to the Islamic tradition of avoiding idolatry. Atatürk believed that "culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic,"[146]and described modern Turkey's ideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal." He included both his own nation's creative legacy and what he saw as the admirable values of global civilization. The pre-Islamicculture of the Turksbecame the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was placed on the widespread Turkish culture before theSeljukandOttomancivilizations. He instigated study ofAnatolian civilizations–Phrygians,Lydians,Sumerians,andHittites.To attract public attention to past cultures, he personally named the banks "Sümerbank"(1932) after the Sumerians and"Etibank"(1935) after the Hittites. He also stressed the folk arts of the countryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.
At the time, the republic used theOttoman Turkish languagewritten in theArabic scriptwith Arabic andPersianloan vocabulary.[125]However, as little as 10% of the population was literate. Furthermore, the American reformerJohn Dewey,invited by Atatürk to assist in educational reform, found that learning how to read and write Turkish in the traditional Arabic script took roughly three years.[125]In the spring of 1928, Atatürk met in Ankara with several linguists and professors from all over Turkey to unveil his plan to implement a new alphabet for the writtenTurkish language,based on a modifiedLatin alphabet.The newTurkish alphabetwould serve as a replacement for the old Arabic script and a solution to the literacy problem, since the new alphabet did not retain the complexities of the Arabic script and could be learned within a few months.[18]When Atatürk asked the language experts how long it would take to implement the new alphabet into the Turkish language, most of the professors and linguists said between three and five years. Atatürk was said to have scoffed and openly stated, "We shall do it in three to five months".[147]
Over the next several months, Atatürk pressed for the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet and made public announcements of the upcoming overhaul. The creation of the alphabet was undertaken by the Language Commission (Dil Encümeni) with the initiative of Atatürk.[125]On 1 November 1928, he introduced the new Turkish alphabet and abolished the use of the Arabic script. The firstTurkish newspaperusing the new alphabet was published on 15 December 1928. Atatürk himself travelled the countryside in order to teach citizens the new alphabet. After vigorous campaigns, the literacy rate more than doubled from 10.6% in 1927 to 22.4% in 1940.[148]To supplement the literacy reform, a number of congresses were organized on scientific issues, education, history, economics, arts and language.[149]Libraries were systematically developed, and mobile libraries and book transport systems were set up to serve remote districts.[150]Literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new law on copyrights.
Atatürk promoted modernteaching methodsat the primary education level, and Dewey proved integral to the effort.[125]Dewey presented a paradigmatic set of recommendations designed for developing societies moving towards modernity in his "Report and Recommendation for the Turkish educational system".[125]He was interested inadult educationwith the goal of forming askill basein the country. Turkish women were taught not only child care, dress-making, and household management but also skills necessary for joining the economy outside the home. Atatürk's unified education program became a state-supervised system, which was designed to create a skill base for the social and economic progress of the country by educating responsible citizens as well as useful and appreciated members of society.[151][125]In addition, Turkish education became an integrative system, aimed to alleviate poverty and usedfemale educationto establishgender equality.Atatürk himself put special emphasis on the education of girls and supportedcoeducation,introducing it at university level in 1923–24 and establishing it as the norm throughout the educational system by 1927.[152]Atatürk's reforms on education made it significantly more accessible: between 1923 and 1938, the number of students attending primary schools increased by 224% (from 342,000 to 765,000), the number of students attending middle schools increased by 12.5 times (from around 6,000 to 74,000), and the number of students attending high schools increased by almost 17 times (from 1,200 to 21,000).[153]
Atatürk generated media attention to propagate modern education during this period. He instigated official education meetings called "Science Boards" and "Education Summits" to discuss the quality of education, training issues, and certain basic educational principles. He said, "our [schools' curriculum] should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve." He was personally engaged with the development of two textbooks. The first one,Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler(Civic knowledge for the citizens, 1930), introduced the science of comparative government and explained the means of administering public trust by explaining the rules of governance as applied to the new state institutions.[154]The second,Geometri(Geometry, 1937), was a text for high schools and introduced many of the terms currently used in Turkey to describegeometry.[155]
Opposition to Atatürk in 1930–1931
On 11 August 1930, Atatürk decided to try a multiparty movement once again and askedFethi Okyarto establish a new party. Atatürk insisted on the protection of secular reforms. The brand-newLiberal Republican Partysucceeded all around the country. However, without the establishment of a real political spectrum, the party became the center to opposition of Atatürk's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life. On 23 December 1930, a chain of violent incidents occurred, instigated by the rebellion of Islamic fundamentalists inMenemen,a small town in theAegean Region.TheMenemen Incidentcame to be considered a serious threat against secular reforms.
In November 1930, Ali Fethi Okyar dissolved his own party. A more lastingmulti-party period of the Republic of Turkeybegan in 1945. In 1950, the CHP ceded the majority position to theDemocratic Party.This came amidst arguments that Atatürk's single-party rule did not promotedirect democracy.The reason experiments withpluralismfailed during this period was that not all groups in the country had agreed to a minimal consensus regarding shared values (mainly secularism) and shared rules for conflict resolution. In response to such criticisms, Atatürk's biographerAndrew Mangowrites: "between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many relatively richer and better-educated societies. Atatürk's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. More could not have been expected in his lifetime."[156]Even though, at times, he did not appear to be a democrat in his actions, Atatürk always supported the idea of building acivil society:a system of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions as opposed to the force-backed structures of the state. In one of his many speeches about the importance of democracy, Atatürk said in 1933:
Republic means the democratic administration of the state. We founded the Republic, reaching its tenth year. It should enforce all the requirements of democracy as the time comes.[157]
Modernization efforts, 1931–1938
In 1931, Atatürk established theTurkish Language Association(Türk Dil Kurumu) for conducting research works in theTurkish language.TheTurkish Historical Society(Türk Tarih Kurumu) was established in 1931, and began maintaining archives in 1932 for conducting research works on thehistory of Turkey.[158]On 1 January 1928, he established theTurkish Education Association,[158]which supported intelligent and hard-working children in financial need, as well as material and scientific contributions to the educational life. In 1933, Atatürk ordered the reorganization ofIstanbul Universityinto a modern institution and later establishedAnkara Universityin the capital city.[159]
Atatürk dealt with the translation of scientificterminologyinto Turkish.[160]He wanted the Turkish language reform to be methodologically based. Any attempt to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence without modelling the integral structure of the language was inherently wrong to him. He personally oversaw the development of theSun Language Theory(Güneş Dil Teorisi), which was alinguistictheory which proposed that all human languages were descendants of oneCentral Asianprimal language. His ideas could be traced to the work by the French scientistHilaire de BarentontitledL'Origine des Langues, des Religions et des Peuples,which postulates that all languages originated fromhieroglyphsandcuneiformused by Sumerians,[161]and the paper by Austrian linguistHermann F. KvergićofViennatitled "La psychologie de quelques éléments des langues Turques" ( "the psychology of some elements of theTurkic Languages").[162]Atatürk formally introduced the Sun Language Theory into Turkish political and educational circles in 1935, although he did later correct the more extremist practices.[160]
Saffet Arıkan,a politician who was the head of theTurkish Language Association,said "Ulu Önderimiz Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal"(" Our Great Leader Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal ") in the opening speech of the 2nd Language Day on 26 September 1934. Later, the surname"Atatürk"(" father of the Turks ") was accepted as the surname of Mustafa Kemal after the adoption of theSurname Lawin 1934.[163]
Beginning in 1932, several hundred "People's Houses"(Halkevleri) and "People's Rooms"(Halkodaları) across the country allowed greater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and other cultural events. Atatürk supported and encouraged the visual and theplastic arts,which had been suppressed by Ottoman leaders, who regarded depiction of the human form asidolatry.Many museums opened, architecture began to follow modern trends, andclassical Western music,opera, ballet, and theatre took greater hold in the country. Book and magazine publications increased as well, and the film industry began to grow.
Almost all Qur'ans in Turkey before the 1930s were printed in Old Arabic. However, in 1924, three Turkish translations of the Qur'an were published in Istanbul, and several renderings of theQur'an in the Turkish languagewere read in front of the public, creating significant controversy.[164]These Turkish Qur'ans were fiercely opposed by members of the religious community, and the incident impelled many leading Muslim modernists to call upon the Turkish Parliament to sponsor a Qur'an translation of suitable quality.[165]With the support of Atatürk, the Parliament approved the project and the Directorate of Religious Affairs appointed Mehmet Akif (Ersoy) to compose aQur'an translation,and the Islamic scholarElmalılı Hamdi Yazırto author a Turkish language Qur'anic commentary (tafsir) titledHak Dini Kur'an Dili(The Qur'an: the Tongue of the Religion of Truth).[166]However, it was only in 1935 that the version of Yazır's work read in public found its way to print.[167]In 1932, Atatürk justified the translation of the Qur'an by stating how he wanted to "teach religion in Turkish to Turkish people who had been practising Islam without understanding it for centuries." Atatürk believed that the understanding of religion and its texts was too important to be left to a small group of people. Thus, his objective was to make the Qur'an accessible to a broader demographic by translating it into modern languages.[168]
In 1934, Atatürk commissioned the first Turkish operatic work,Özsoy.The opera, staged at the People's House in Ankara, was composed byAdnan Saygunand performed by sopranoSemiha Berksoy.[169]
On 5 December 1934, Turkey moved to grant full political rights to women. The equal rights of women in marriage had already been established in the earlier Turkish civil code.[170]The role of women in Atatürk's cultural reforms was expressed in the civic book prepared under his supervision.[171]In it, he stated:
There is no logical explanation for the political disenfranchisement of women. Any hesitation and negative mentality on this subject is nothing more than a fading social phenomenon of the past....Women must have the right to vote and to be elected; because democracy dictates that, because there are interests that women must defend, and because there are social duties that women must perform.[172]
The1935 general electionsyielded 18 female MPs out of a total of 395 representatives, compared to nine out of 615 members in theBritish House of Commonsand six out of 435 in theUS House of Representativesinaugurated that year.[173]
Unification and nationalisation efforts
When the modernRepublic of Turkeywas founded in 1923, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principles.[174]Atatürk aimed to create a nation state (ulus devlet) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Kemalism defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."[175]One of the goals of the establishment of the new Turkish state was to ensure "the domination of Turkish national identity in every aspect of social life from the language that people speak in the streets to the language to be taught at schools, from the education to the industrial life, from the trade to the cadres of state officials, from the civil law to the settlement of citizens to particular regions."[176]The process of unification throughTurkificationcontinued and was fostered under Atatürk's government with such policies asCitizen speak Turkish!(Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!), an initiative created in the 1930s by law students but sponsored by the government. This campaign aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public.[12][177][10][9][178][179][180]However, the campaign went beyond the measures of a mere policy of speaking Turkish to an outright prevention of any other language.[12][177][181][182][183]
Another example of nationalisation was theSurname Law,which obligated the Turkish people to adopt fixed, hereditary surnames and forbade names that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions.[10][180][184][185][186]As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds changed their surnames.[185]Non-Turkish surnames ending with "yan, of, ef, viç, is, dis, poulos, aki, zade, shvili, madumu, veled, bin" could not be registered and were replaced by "-oğlu".[187]Furthermore, thegeographical name changesinitiative by the Turkish government replaced non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within theTurkish RepublicwithTurkishnames.[188][189][11][190][191][192]The main proponent of the initiative had been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek,Laz,Bulgarian, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin.[188][11][191][192][193]
The1934 Resettlement Lawwas a policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration.[194]The law, however, is regarded by some as a policy of assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.[195]
Social policy reforms and economic progress
Atatürk was also credited for his transformational change in Turkish agriculture and ecological development. The Kemalist government planted four million trees, modernized the Turkish agricultural mechanism, implemented flood controls, opened schools in rural areas with rural institutions such as agricultural banks, and implemented land reform that removed heavy taxes on peasants of the Ottoman era. He was described as the "Father of Turkish Agriculture".[196][197]Atatürk also massively boomed the Turkish economy with heavy industrial production increased by 150% and GDP per capita rose from 800 USD to around 2000 USD by late 1930s, on par with Japan.[198]
Atatürk's regime also passed the 1936 Labor Law, which gave substantial wage increases and improved the working conditions of workers in Turkish enterprises.[199]
Foreign policies
Atatürk's foreign policy followed his motto "Peace at home, peace in the world",[200]a perception of peace linked to his project of civilization and modernization.[201]The outcomes of Atatürk's policies depended on the power of the parliamentary sovereignty established by the Republic.[202]The Turkish War of Independence was the last time Atatürk used his military might in dealing with other countries. Foreign issues were resolved by peaceful methods during his presidency.
Issue of Mosul
The Issue of Mosul, a dispute with the United Kingdom over control ofMosul Vilayet,was one of the first foreign affairs-related controversies of the new Republic. During theMesopotamian campaign,Lieutenant GeneralWilliam Marshallfollowed the British War Office's instruction that "every effort was to be made to score as heavily as possible on the Tigris before the whistle blew", capturing Mosul three days after the signature of theArmistice of Mudros(30 October 1918).[203]In 1920, theMisak-ı Milli,which consolidated the "Turkish lands", declared that Mosul Vilayet was a part of the historic Turkish heartland. The British were in a precarious situation with the Issue of Mosul and were adopting almost equally desperate measures to protect their interests. For example, theIraqi revolt against the Britishwas suppressed by theRAF Iraq Commandduring the summer of 1920. From the British perspective, if Atatürk stabilized Turkey, he would then turn his attention to Mosul and penetrate Mesopotamia, where the native population would likely join his cause. Such an event would result in an insurgent and hostile Muslim nation in close proximity to British territory in India.
In 1923, Atatürk tried to persuade the GNA that accepting the arbitration of theLeague of Nationsat theTreaty of Lausannedid not signify relinquishing Mosul, but rather waiting for a time when Turkey might be stronger. Nevertheless, the artificially drawn border had an unsettling effect on the population on both sides. Later, it was claimed that Turkey began where the oil ends, as the border was drawn by the British geophysicists based on locations of oil reserves. Atatürk did not want this separation.[204]To address Atatürk's concerns, theBritish Foreign SecretaryGeorge Curzonattempted to disclaim the existence of oil in the Mosul area. On 23 January 1923, Curzon argued that the existence of oil was no more than hypothetical.[203]However, according to the biographerH. C. Armstrong,"England wanted Mosul and its oil. The Kurds were the key to Mosul and the oil of Irak."[205]
While three inspectors from the League of Nations Committee were sent to the region to oversee the situation in 1924, theSheikh Said rebellion(1924–1927) set out to establish a new government positioned to cut Turkey's link to Mesopotamia. The relationship between the rebels and Britain was investigated. In fact, British assistance was sought after the rebels decided that the rebellion could not stand by itself.[206]
In 1925, the League of Nations formed a three-member committee to study the case while the Sheikh Said Rebellion was on the rise. Partly because of the continuing uncertainties along the northern frontier (present-day northern Iraq), the committee recommended that the region should be connected to Iraq with the condition that the UK would hold theBritish Mandate of Mesopotamia.By the end of March 1925, the necessary troop movements were completed, and the whole area of the Sheikh Said rebellion was encircled.[207]As a result of these manoeuvres, the revolt was put down. Britain, Iraq, and Atatürk made a treaty on 5 June 1926, which mostly followed the decisions of the League Council. The agreement left a large section of the Kurdish population and theIraqi Turkmenon the non-Turkish side of the border.[208][209]
Relations with the Russian SFSR/Soviet Union
In his 26 April 1920 message toVladimir Lenin,the Bolshevik leader and head of theRussian SFSR's government Atatürk promised to coordinate his military operations with the Bolsheviks' "fight againstimperialistgovernments "and requested 5 millionlirain gold as well as armaments "as first aid" to his forces.[210]In 1920 alone, the Lenin government supplied the Kemalists with 6,000rifles,over 5 millionrifle cartridges,17,600 projectiles as well as 200.6 kg of goldbullion.In the subsequent two years, the amount of aid increased.[211]
In March 1921, the GNA representatives in Moscow signed theTreaty of Moscow ( "Friendship and Brotherhood" Treaty)with Soviet Russia, which was a major diplomatic breakthrough for the Kemalists. The Treaty of Moscow, followed by the identicalTreaty of Karsin October the same year, gave Turkey a favourable settlement of its north-eastern frontier at the expense of theArmenian Soviet Socialist Republic,then nominally an independent state.
Relations between the two countries were friendly but were based on the fact that they were against a common enemy: Britain and the West.[212]In 1920, Atatürk toyed with the idea of using a state-controlledTurkish Communist Partyto forestall the perceived spread of communist ideas in the country and gain access to theComintern's financing.
Despite his relations with the Soviet Union, Atatürk was not willing to commit Turkey to communism. "Friendship with Russia," he said, "is not to adopt their ideology of communism for Turkey."[212]Moreover, Atatürk declared, "Communism is a social issue. Social conditions, religion, and national traditions of our country confirm the opinion that Russian Communism is not applicable in Turkey."[213]And in a speech on 1 November 1924, he said, "Our amicable relations with our old friend the Soviet Russian Republic are developing and progressing every day. As in past our Republican Government regards genuine and extensive good relations with Soviet Russia as the keystone of our foreign policy."[212]
After the Turks withdrew their delegation fromGenevaon 16 December 1925, they left the League of Nations Council to grant a mandate for the Mosul region to Britain without their consent. Atatürk countered[214]by concluding anon-aggression pactwith the USSR on 17 December.[215]In 1935, the pact was prolonged for another 10 years.[216]
In 1933, theSoviet Defence MinisterKliment Voroshilovvisited Turkey and attended the tenth year celebrations of the Republic.[217]Atatürk explained his position regarding the realization of his plan for aBalkan Federationeconomically uniting Turkey, Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.[217]
During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to establish a closer relationship with Britain and other major Western powers, which caused displeasure on the part of the Soviets. The second edition of theGreat Soviet Encyclopedia(Volume 20, 1953) was unequivocally critical of Atatürk's policies in the last years of his rule, calling his domestic policies "anti-popular" and his foreign course as aimed atrapprochementwith the "imperialist powers".[218]
Turkish-Greek alliance
The post-war leader of Greece,Eleftherios Venizelos,was also determined to establish normal relations between his country and Turkey. The war had devastatedWestern Anatolia,and the financial burden ofOttoman Muslim refugeesfrom Greece blocked rapprochement. Venizelos moved forward with an agreement with Turkey, despite accusations of conceding too much on the issues of naval armaments and the properties of Ottoman Greeks from Turkey.[219]In spite of Turkish animosity against the Greeks, Atatürk resisted the pressures of historic enmities and was sensitive towards past tensions; at one point, he ordered the removal of a painting showing a Turkish soldier plunging his bayonet into a Greek soldier by stating, "What a revolting scene!"[220]
Greece renounced all its claims over Turkish territory, and the two sides concluded an agreement on 30 April 1930. On 25 October, Venizelos visited Turkey and signed a treaty of friendship.[221]Venizelos even forwarded Atatürk's name for the 1934Nobel Peace Prize.[222]Even after Venizelos' fall from power, Greco-Turkish relations remained cordial. Indeed, Venizelos' successorPanagis Tsaldariscame to visit Atatürk in September 1933 and signed a more comprehensive agreement called theEntente Cordialebetween Greece and Turkey, which was a stepping stone for theBalkan Pact.
Greek PremierIoannis Metaxasonce stated, with regard to Atatürk, that "...Greece, which has the highest estimation of the renowned leader, heroic soldier, and enlightened creator of Turkey. We will never forget that President Atatürk was the true founder of the Turkish-Greek alliance based on a framework of common ideals and peaceful cooperation. He developed ties of friendship between the two nations which it would be unthinkable to dissolve. Greece will guard its fervent memories of this great man, who determined an unalterable future path for the noble Turkish nation."[223]
Neighbours to the east
From 1919, Afghanistan was in the midst of areformation periodunderAmanullah Khan.Afghan Foreign MinisterMahmud Tarziwas a follower of Atatürk's domestic policy. Tarzi encouraged Amanullah Khan in social and political reform but urged that reforms should built on a strong government. During the late 1920s, Anglo-Afghan relations soured over British fears of an Afghan-Soviet friendship. On 20 May 1928, Anglo-Afghan politics gained a positive perspective, when Amanullah Khan and his wife, QueenSoraya Tarzi,were received by Atatürk in Istanbul.[224]This meeting was followed by a Turkey-Afghanistan Friendship and Cooperation pact on 22 May 1928. Atatürk supported Afghanistan's integration into international organizations. In 1934, Afghanistan's relations with the international community improved significantly when it joined the League of Nations.[225]Mahmud Tarzi received Atatürk's personal support until he died on 22 November 1933 in Istanbul.
Atatürk andReza Shah,leader of Iran, had a common approach regardingBritish imperialismand its influence in their countries, resulting in a slow but continuous rapprochement between Ankara and Tehran. Both governments sent diplomatic missions and messages of friendship to each other during the Turkish War of Independence.[226]The policy of the Ankara government in this period was to give moral support in order to reassure Iranian independence and territorial integrity.[227]The relations between the two countries were strained after the abolishment of the Caliphate. Iran'sShi'a clergydid not accept Atatürk's stance, and Iranian religious power centres perceived the real motive behind Atatürk's reforms was to undermine the power of the clergy.[227]By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's efforts had upset the clergy throughout Iran, thus widening the gap between religion and government.[228]As Russia and Great Britain strengthened their holds in the Middle East, Atatürk feared the occupation and dismemberment of Iran as a multi-ethnic society by these European powers.[227]Like Atatürk, Reza Shah wanted to secure Iran's borders, and in 1934, the Shah visited Atatürk.
In 1935, the draft of what would become theTreaty of Saadabadwas paragraphed in Geneva, but its signing was delayed due to theborder dispute between Iran and Iraq.On 8 July 1937, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan signed theSaadabad PactatTehran.The signatories agreed to preserve their common frontiers, to consult together in all matters of common interest, and to commit no aggression against one another's territory. The treaty united the Afghan KingZahir Shah's call for greater Oriental-Middle Eastern cooperation, Reza Shah's goal in securing relations with Turkey that would help free Iran from Soviet and British influence, and Atatürk's foreign policy of ensuring stability in the region. The treaty's immediate outcome, however, was deterring Italian leaderMussolinifrom interfering in the Middle East.[229]
Turkish Straits
On 24 July 1923, theTreaty of Lausanneincluded the Lausanne Straits Agreement. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that theDardanellesshould remain open to all commercial vessels: seizure of foreign military vessels was subject to certain limitations during peacetime, and, even as a neutral state, Turkey could not limit any military passage during wartime. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that the waterway was to be demilitarised and its management left to the Straits Commission. The demilitarised zone heavily restricted Turkey's domination and sovereignty over the Straits, and the defence ofIstanbulwas impossible without sovereignty over the water that passed through it.
In March 1936, Hitler'sreoccupation of the Rhinelandgave Atatürk the opportunity to resume full control over the Straits. "The situation in Europe", Atatürk declared "is highly appropriate for such a move. We shall certainly achieve it".[230]Tevfik Rüştü Aras,Turkey's foreign minister, initiated a move to revise the Straits' regime. Aras claimed that he was directed by Atatürk, rather than the Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü. İnönü was worried about harming relations with Britain, France, and Balkan neighbors over the Straits. However, the signatories of the Treaty of Lausanne agreed to join the conference, since unlimited military passage had become unfavourable to Turkey with the changes in world politics. Atatürk demanded that the members of the Turkish Foreign Office devise a solution that would transfer full control of the waterway to Turkey.
On 20 July 1936, theMontreux Conventionwas signed by Bulgaria, Great Britain, Australia, France, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Greece. It became the primary instrument governing the passage of commercial and war vessels through the Dardanelles Strait. The agreement was ratified by theGNATon 31 July 1936 and went into effect on 9 November 1936.[231]
Balkan Pact
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Until the early 1930s, Turkey followed a neutral foreign policy with the West by developing joint friendship and neutrality agreements. These bilateral agreements aligned with Atatürk's worldview. By the end of 1925, Turkey had signed fifteen joint agreements with Western states.
In the early 1930s, changes and developments in world politics required Turkey to make multilateral agreements to improve its security. Atatürk strongly believed that close cooperation between the Balkan states based on the principle of equality would have an important effect on European politics. These states had been ruled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries and had proved to be a powerful force. While the origins of the Balkan agreement may date as far back as 1925, the Balkan Pact came into being in the mid-1930s. Several important developments in Europe helped the original idea materialise, such as improvements in the Turkish-Greek alliance and the rapprochement between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The most important factor in driving Turkish foreign policy from the mid-1930s onwards was the fear of Italy.Benito Mussolinihad frequently proclaimed his intention to place the entireMediterranean under Italian control.Both the Turks and the various Balkan states felt threatened by Italian ambitions.
TheBalkan Pactwas negotiated by Atatürk with Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia. This mutual-defence agreement intended to guarantee the signatories' territorial integrity and political independence against attack from another Balkan state such as Bulgaria or Albania. It countered the increasingly aggressive foreign policy of fascist Italy and the effect of a potential Bulgarian alignment with Nazi Germany. Atatürk thought of the Balkan Pact as a medium of balance in Turkey's relations with the European countries.[232]He was particularly anxious to establish a region of security and alliances to the west of Turkey in Europe, which the Balkan Pact helped achieve.[233]
The Balkan Pact provided for regular military and diplomatic consultations. The importance of the agreement is best seen in a message Atatürk sent to the Greek PremierIoannis Metaxas:
The borders of the allies in the Balkan Pact are a single border. Those who covet this border will encounter the burning beams of the sun. I recommend avoiding this. The forces that defend our borders are a single and inseparable force.[234]
The Balkan Pact was signed by the GNA on 28 February. The Greek and Yugoslav Parliaments ratified the agreement a few days later. The unanimously ratified Balkan pact was formally adopted on 18 May 1935 and lasted until 1940.[citation needed]
The Balkan Pact turned out to be ineffective for reasons that were beyond Atatürk's control. The pact failed when Bulgaria attempted to raise theDobrujaissue, only to end with theItalian invasion of Albaniaon 7 April 1939. Theseconflictsspread rapidly, eventually triggering World War II. The goal of Atatürk to protect southeast Europe failed with the dissolution of the pact. In 1938, theTurkish Armyat peacetime strength consisted of 174,000 soldiers and 20,000officersforming 11army corps,23divisions,one armouredbrigade,3cavalrybrigades, and 7 frontier commands.[235][236]
Issue of Hatay
During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to form a closer relationship with Britain. The risks of this policy change put the two men at odds. The Hatay issue and the Lyon agreement were two important developments in foreign policy that played a significant role in severing relations between Atatürk and İnönü.
In 1936, Atatürk raised the "Issue of Hatay" at the League of Nations.Hataywas based on the old administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire called theSanjak of Alexandretta.On behalf of the League of Nations, the representatives of France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Turkey prepared a constitution for Hatay, which established it as an autonomoussanjakwithin Syria. Despite some inter-ethnic violence, an election was conducted in 1938 by the local legislative assembly. The cities ofAntakya(Antioch) andİskenderun(Alexandretta) joined Turkey in 1939.[237]
Economic policies
Atatürk instigated economic policies to develop small and large scale businesses, but also to create social strata (i.e. industrial bourgeoisie coexisting with the peasantry of Anatolia) that were virtually non-existent during the Ottoman Empire. The primary problem faced by the politics of his period was the lag in the development of political institutions and social classes which would steer such social and economic changes.[238]Atatürk's vision regarding early Turkish economic policy was apparent during theİzmir Economic Congressof 1923. The initial choices of Atatürk's economic policies reflected the realities of his time. After World War I, due to the lack of any real potential investors to fund private sector industry, Atatürk established many state-owned factories for agriculture, machinery, and textile industries.
State intervention, 1923–1929
Atatürk andİsmet İnönü's pursuit of state-controlled economic policies was guided by a national vision; their goal was to knit the country together, eliminate foreign control of the economy, and improve communications within Turkey. Resources were channeled away from Istanbul, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, in favor of other, less developed cities in order to achieve a more balanced economic development throughout the country.[239]
For Atatürk and his supporters, tobacco remained wedded to his pursuit of economic independence.Turkish tobaccowas an important industrial crop, but its cultivation and manufacture had been under French monopolies granted bycapitulations of the Ottoman Empire.The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies: theRegie Companyand Narquileh Tobacco.[240]The Ottoman Empire had given the tobacco monopoly to theOttoman Bankas a limited company under theCouncil of the Public Debt.Regie, as part of the council, had control over tobacco production, storage, and distribution (including export) with unchallenged price control. Consequently, Turkish farmers were dependent on the company for their livelihoods.[241]In 1925, Regie was taken over by the state and namedTekel.Government control of tobacco was one of the greatest achievements of the Kemalist political machinery's "nationalization"of the economy for a country that did not produceoil.Kemalists accompanied this achievement with the development of the country's cotton industry, which peaked during the early 1930s.[citation needed]Cotton was the second most important industrial crop in Turkey at the time.
In 1924, with the initiative of Atatürk, the first Turkish bankİş Bankasıwas established, with Atatürk as the bank's first member. The bank's creation was a response to the growing need for a truly national establishment and a banking system which was capable of backing up economic activities, managing funds accumulated through policies of savings incentives, and offering resources where necessary to trigger industrial impetus.[242]
In 1927,Turkish State Railwayswas established. Because Atatürk considered the development of a nationalrail networkas another important step in industrialisation, railways were given high priority. The Turkish State Railway developed an extensive railway network in a very short time[weasel words].[citation needed]
The Turkish government under Atatürk developed many economic and infrastructure projects within the first decade of the republic. However, the Turkish economy was still largely agrarian, with primitive tools and methods. Roads and transportation facilities were still far from sufficient, and management of the economy was inefficient.[citation needed]TheGreat Depressionbrought many changes to this picture.
Great Depression, 1929–1931
The young republic, like the rest of the world, found itself in a deep economic crisis during theGreat Depression.Atatürk reacted to conditions of this period by moving toward integrated economic policies and establishing a central bank to control exchange rates. However, Turkey could not finance essential imports; its currency was shunned, and zealous revenue officials seized the meagre possessions of peasants who could not pay their taxes.[239]
In 1929, Atatürk signed a treaty that resulted in therestructuring of Turkey's debtwith theOttoman Public Debt Administration.At the time, Atatürk not only had to deal with the payment of theOttoman public debtbut also the turbulent economic issues of the Great Depression. For example, until the early 1930s, Turkish private business could not acquire exchange credits. It was impossible to integrate the Turkish economy without a solution to these problems.[citation needed]
In 1931, theCentral Bank of the Republic of Turkeywas established.[243]The bank's primary purpose was to control the exchange rate andOttoman Bank's role during its initial years as a central bank was phased out.[citation needed]Later specialized banks such as theSümerbank(1932) and theEtibank(1935) were founded.
From thepolitical economyperspective, Atatürk faced the problem of political upheaval. The establishment of a new party with a different economic perspective was necessary; he asked Ali Fethi Okyar to meet this end. TheLiberal Republican Party(August 1930) was founded with a liberal program and proposed that state monopolies should be ended, foreign capital should be attracted, and state investment should be curtailed. Nevertheless, Atatürk maintained the view that "it is impossible to attract foreign capital for essential development," and state capitalism became the dominant agenda during the depression era. In 1931, Atatürk proclaimed: "In the economic area...the programme of the party is statism."[244]However, the effect of free republicans was felt strongly and state intervention became more moderate and more akin to a form ofstate capitalism.One of Atatürk's radical left-wing supporters,Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlufrom theKadro(The Cadre) movement, claimed that Atatürk found a third way between capitalism and socialism.[245]
Liberalization and planned growth, 1931–1939
The first (1929–1933) and second five-year economic plans were enacted under the supervision of Atatürk. The first five-year economic plan promoted consumer substitution industries. However, these economic plans changed drastically with the death of Atatürk and the rise of World War II. Subsequent governments took measures that harmed the economic productivity of Turkey in various ways.[246]The achievements of the 1930s were credited to early 1920s implementations of the economic system based on Atatürk's national policies.[247]
In 1931, Atatürk watched the development of the first national aircraft, MMV-1. He realised the important role of aviation and stated, "the future lies in the skies".[248]TheTurkish Aeronautical Associationwas founded on 16 February 1925 by his directive.[249]He also ordered the establishment of the Turkish Aircraft Association Lottery. Instead of the traditional raffle prizes, this new lottery paid money prizes. Most of the lottery income was used to establish a new factory and fund aviation projects.[citation needed]However, Atatürk did not live to see the flight of the first Turkish military aircraft built at that factory. Operational AmericanCurtiss Hawkfighters were being produced in Turkey soon after his death and before the onset of World War II.[citation needed]
In 1932, liberal economistCelâl Bayarbecame the Minister of Economy at Atatürk's request and served until 1937.[250]During this period, the country moved toward a mixed economy with its first private initiatives. Textile, sugar, paper, and steel factories (financed by a loan from Britain) were the private sectors of the period. Besides these businesses, government-owned power plants, banks, and insurance companies were established. In this period, Atatürk promoted public-private sector cooperation and the expansion of private businesses with private shareholders firms allowed to purchase shares in state-owned enterprises.
In 1935, the first Turkish cotton print factory "NazilliCalicoprint factory "opened. As part of the industrialization process, cotton planting was promoted to furnish raw material for future factory settlements.[251]By 1935,Nazillibecame a major industrial center beginning with the establishment ofcotton millsfollowed by a calico print factory.[252][253]
In 1936, Turkish industrialistNuri Demirağestablished the first Turkish aircraft factory in theBeşiktaşdistrict ofIstanbul.[254]The first Turkish airplanes,Nu D.36andNu D.38,were produced in this factory.[254]
On 25 October 1937, Atatürk appointedCelâl Bayaras the prime minister of the 9th government. Integrated economic policies reached their peak with the signing of the 1939 Treaty with Britain and France.[246]The treaty signaled a turning point in Turkish history since it was the first step towards an alliance with the West.[246]After İsmet İnönü became president in 1938, the differences between İnönü (who promoted state control) and Bayar (who was liberal) came to the forefront. On 25 January 1939, Prime Minister Bayar resigned.[255]
Atatürk also supported the establishment of the automobile industry. TheTurkish Automobile Associationwas founded in 1923,[256]and its motto was: "The Turkish driver is a man of the most exquisite sensitivities."[257]
In 1935, Turkey was becoming an industrial society based on the Western European model set by Atatürk.[258]However, the gap between Atatürk's goals and the achievements of the socio-political structure of the country had not yet been closed.[258]
Personal life
Kemal Atatürk's name is associated with four women:Eleni Karinte,Fikriye Hanım,Dimitrina Kovacheva,[259]andLatife Uşaki.Little is known of his relationship with Eleni, who, according to a folk legend, fell in love with him while he was a student inBitola,but the relationship inspired a play by the Macedonian writer Dejan Dukovski, later filmed by Aleksandar Popovski.[260][better source needed]Fikriye was a nominal cousin of Atatürk, though not related by blood (she was Atatürk's stepfather Ragıp Bey's niece). Fikriye grew passionately attached to Atatürk; the full extent of his feelings for her is unclear but it is certain that they became very close after Fikriye divorced her Egyptian husband and returned to Istanbul. During the War of Independence, she lived with him inÇankaya, Ankaraas his personal assistant.
However, after the Turkish army entered İzmir in 1922, Atatürk met Latife while staying at the house of her father, the shipping magnate Muammer Uşakizade (later Uşaklı). Latife fell in love with Atatürk; again the extent to which this was reciprocated is unknown, but Atatürk was impressed by Latife's intellect: she was a graduate of theSorbonneand was studying English in London when the war broke out. On 29 January 1923, they were married. Latife was jealous of Fikriye and demanded that she leave the house in Çankaya; Fikriye was devastated and immediately left in a carriage. According to official accounts, she shot herself with a pistol Atatürk had given her as a present. However, it was rumoured that she was instead murdered.[261]
The triangle of Atatürk, Fikriye, and Latife became the subject of a manuscript by Atatürk's close friend, Salih Bozok, though the work remained unpublished until 2005.[262]Latife was briefly and literally the face of the new Turkish woman, appearing in public in Western clothing with her husband.[263]However, their marriage was not happy; after frequent arguments, the two were divorced on 5 August 1925.[264]
During his lifetime, Atatürk adopted thirteen children: a boy and twelve girls. Of these, the most famous isSabiha Gökçen,Turkey's first female pilot and the world's first female fighter pilot.[265]
There is a controversy on Atatürk's religious beliefs.[266]Some researchers have emphasized that his discourses about religion are periodic and that his positive views related to this subject are limited in the early 1920s.[267]Some Turkish sources claim he was a devoutMuslim.[268][269][270]However, according to other sources, Atatürk himself was an agnostic, i.e. non-doctrinairedeist,[271][272]or even anatheist,[273][274][275]who was antireligious and anti-Islamic in general.[276][277]
Illness and death
Throughout most of his life, Atatürk was a moderate-to-heavy drinker, often consuming half a litre ofrakıa day; he also smoked tobacco, predominantly in the form ofcigarettes.[278][279][280]During 1937, indications that Atatürk's health was worsening started to appear. In early 1938, while on a trip toYalova,he suffered from a serious illness. He went to Istanbul for treatment, where he was diagnosed withcirrhosis.During his stay in Istanbul, he made an effort to keep up with his regular lifestyle, but eventually succumbed to his illness. He died on 10 November 1938, at the age of 57, in theDolmabahçe Palace.[281]
Atatürk's funeral called forth both sorrow and pride in Turkey, and 17 countries sent special representatives, while nine contributed armed detachments to thecortège.[200]Atatürk's remains were originally laid to rest in theEthnography Museum of Ankara,but they were transferred on 10 November 1953 (15 years after his death) in a 42-tonsarcophagusto a mausoleum overlooking Ankara,Anıtkabir.[282]
In hiswill,Atatürk donated all of his possessions to the Republican People's Party, provided that the yearly interest of his funds[283]would be used to look after his sister Makbule and his adopted children, and fund the higher education of İsmet İnönü's children.[284]The remainder was willed to theTurkish Language Associationand theTurkish Historical Society.[285][284]
Legacy
Turkey
Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by many memorials throughout Turkey, such as theAtatürk International Airportin Istanbul, theAtatürk Bridgeover theGolden Horn(Haliç), theAtatürk Dam,andAtatürk Stadium.Atatürk statues have been erected in all Turkish cities by the Turkish Government, and most towns have their own memorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey; his portrait can be seen in public buildings, in schools, on allTurkish lirabanknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families.[286]At 9:05 am on every 10 November, at the exact time of Atatürk's death, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.[287]
In 1951, theDemocrat Party-controlled Turkish parliament led by Prime MinisterAdnan Menderes(despite being the conservative opposition to Atatürk's ownRepublican People's Party) issueda law (Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk)outlawinginsults to his memory(hatırasına alenen hakaret) anddestruction of objectsrepresenting him.[288]The demarcation between a criticism and an insult was defined as a political argument, and theMinister of Justice(a political position) wasassigned in Article 5to execute the law rather than thepublic prosecutor.A government website was created to denounce websites that violate this law.[289]
In 2010, the French-based NGOReporters Without Bordersobjected to the Turkish laws protecting the memory of Atatürk, arguing that they contradict the currentEuropean Unionstandards offreedom of speechin news media.[290]
Worldwide
In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by theUnited NationsandUNESCO,which declared itThe Atatürk Year in the Worldand adopted theResolution on the Atatürk Centennial.[18][19]TheAtatürk Monument in Mexico CityonPaseo de la Reforma;theAtatürk Monument in Baku,Azerbaijan;the Atatürk Monument inAlmaty,Kazakhstan;the Atatürk Memorial inWellington,New Zealand(which also serves as a memorial to the ANZAC troops who died at Gallipoli); theAtatürk Memorial in the place of honour on Anzac ParadeinCanberra,Australia;and squares called the Plaza Mustafa Kemal Atatürk inSantiago,Chileand the Largo Mustafa Kemal Atatürk inRome,Italyare a few examples of Atatürk memorials outside Turkey. He has roads named after him in several countries, such as the Kemal Atatürk Marg inNew Delhi,India;the Kemal Atatürk Avenues inDhakaandChittagonginBangladesh;the Atatürk Avenue in the heart ofIslamabad,Pakistan;the Atatürk Road in the southern city ofLarkanainSindh,Pakistan; Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Street inTunis,Tunisia;Mustafá Kemal Atatürk Street in the Naco district ofSanto Domingo,Dominican Republic;andthe street and memorial Atatürkin theAmsterdam-Noordborough ofAmsterdam,Netherlands.In addition, the entrance to Princess Royal Harbour inAlbany, Western Australiais namedAtatürk Channel.There are many statues and streets named after Atatürk inNorthern Cyprus.
Despite his radical secular reforms, Atatürk remained broadly popular in the Muslim world.[291]He is remembered for being the creator of a new, fully independent Muslim country at a time of encroachment by Christian powers, and for having prevailed in a struggle against Western imperialism.[291]When he died, theAll-India Muslim Leagueeulogised him as a "truly great personality in the Islamic world, a great general, and a great statesman", declaring that his memory would "inspire Muslims all over the world with courage, perseverance, and manliness".[291]
The range of Atatürk's admirers extends from the British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill,his opponent inWorld War I,to the GermanNazileader and dictatorAdolf Hitler,[292][293][294][295]who called Atatürk a "star in the darkness".[296]Some presidents of the United States, includingFranklin D. RooseveltandJohn F. Kennedy,also respected Atatürk. President Kennedy paid tribute to Atatürk in 1963 on the 25th anniversary of his death.[297]
As a role model that encouraged national sovereignty, Atatürk was especially revered in countries of the so-calledThird World,which saw him as the pioneer of independence from colonial powers. The leaders of such countries included Atatürk's Iranian contemporaryReza Shah Pahlavi,the Indian Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru,the Tunisian PresidentHabib Bourguiba,and the Egyptian PresidentAnwar Sadat.[298][299][300]The Pakistani poet and philosopherMuhammad Iqbaland theBangladeshinational poetKazi Nazrul Islamwrote poems in his honor.
The Twelfth International Women Conference was held inIstanbul,Turkeyon 18 April 1935, and Egyptian nationalist-feministHuda Sha'arawiwas elected by the conference as the vice-president of the International Women's Union. Huda considered Atatürk as a role model for her actions and wrote in her memoirs:
After the Istanbul conference ended, we received an invitation to attend the celebration held by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the liberator of modern Turkey... and I said: If the Turks considered you the worthiness of their father and they called you Atatürk, I say that this is not enough, but you are for us "Atasharq" [Father of the East]. Its meaning did not come from any female head of delegation, and thanked me very much for the great influence, and then I begged him to present us with a picture of his Excellency for publication in the journalL'Égyptienne.[301]
In the epilogue ofGrey Wolf, Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator,first published in 1932 and the first biography of Atatürk published in his lifetime,H. C. Armstrongwrote these words:
He is a man born out of due season, an anachronism, a throw-back to the Tartars of the Steppes, a fierce elemental force of a man. Had he been born in the centuries when all Central Asia was on the move he would have ridden out withSulyman Shah[sic] under the banner of the Grey Wolf, and with the heart and instincts of a Grey Wolf. With his military genius, and his ruthless determination unweakened by sentiments, loyalties or moralities, he might well have been aTamerlaneor aJenghis Khanriding at the head of great hordes of wild horsemen, conquering countries, devouring and destroying cities, and filling in the intervals of peace between campaigns with wild and hideous orgies of wine and women.[302]
However, Atatürk's acclaim is not universal. As the leader of thenational movement of 1919–1923,Atatürk was described by theAlliesand Istanbul journalistAli Kemal(who believed the liberation efforts would fail and cause a more severe punishment by the Allies) as a "bandit chief".Lord Balfourin this context called him the "most terrible of all the terrible Turks".[303]
Works
- Cumalı Ordugâhı - Süvâri: Bölük, Alay, Liva Tâlim ve Manevraları[Cumalı Camp - Cavalry: Company, Regiment, Brigade Training and Maneuvers],Thessaloniki, 1909.
- Ta’biye ve Tatbîkat Seyahati [Organization and Application Trip],Selanik Askeri Matbaası, 1911.
- Ta’biye Mes’elesinin Halli ve Emirlerin Sûret-i Tahrîrine Dâir Nasâyih [Advice on the Solution to the Problem of Organization and the Methods of Recording Orders],Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
- Taʼlîm ve Terbiye-i Askeriyye Hakkında Nokta-i Nazarlar [Points of View on Instruction and Military Training],Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
- Zâbit ve Kumandan ile Hasb-ı Hâl[Discourse with an Officer and a Commander],Minber Matbaası, 1918.
- Nutuk[Speech],Turkish Aeronautical Association,Ankara, 1927.
- Vatandaş için Medeni Bilgiler[Civic Information for Citizens],Milliyet Matbaası, İstanbul, 1930.
- Geometri [Geometry],1937.
Translations
- Takımın Muharebe Tâlimi[Combat Training for the Squad],Selanik Asır Matbaası, Thessaloniki, 1908. (From German)
- Bölüğün Muharebe Tâlimi [Combat Training for the Company],1912. (From German)
Awards and decorations
He received awards and decorations before, during, and afterWorld War I.[304][305]
Ottoman Empire and Republic of Turkey
Ottoman Empire:Fifth Class Knight Order of the Medjidieawarded byAbdul Hamid II(25 December 1906)- Ottoman Empire:Silver Imtiyaz Medalawarded byMehmed V(30 April 1915)
- Ottoman Empire:Silver Liakat Medalawarded byMehmed V(1 September 1915)
- Ottoman Empire:Golden Liakat Medalawarded byMehmed V(17 January 1916)
- Ottoman Empire:Second Class Knight Order of Osmaniehawarded byMehmed V(1 February 1916)
- Ottoman Empire:Second Class Knight Order of the Medjidieawarded byMehmed V(12 December 1916)
- Ottoman Empire:Golden Imtiyaz Medalawarded byMehmed V(23 September 1917)
- Ottoman Empire:First Class Knight Order of the Medjidieawarded byMehmed V(16 December 1917)
- Ottoman Empire:Gallipoli Starawarded byMehmed VI(11 May 1918)
Turkey:Medal of Independenceawarded byGrand National Assembly of Turkey(21 November 1923)- Turkey: Murassa Order awarded byTurkish Aeronautical Association(20 May 1925)
Foreign honours
Kingdom of Bulgaria:Commander Grand Cross Order of Saint Alexanderawarded byFerdinand I(1915)[306]
German Empire:Iron Crossof theGerman Empireawarded byWilhelm II(1915)[306]
Austria-Hungary:Military Merit Medal (Austria-Hungary)awarded byFranz Joseph I(1916)- Austria-Hungary:2nd Class Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)awarded byCharles I(1916)
- Austria-Hungary:3rd Class Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)awarded byFranz Joseph I(27 July 1916)
- German Empire:1st Class Iron Crossof theGerman Empireawarded byWilhelm II(1917)
- German Empire:2nd Class Iron Crossof theGerman Empireawarded byWilhelm II(9 September 1917)
Kingdom of Prussia:1st Class Order of the Crown Prussiaawarded byWilhelm II(1918)
Kingdom of Afghanistan: Alüyülala Order ofKingdom of Afghanistanawarded byAmānullāh Khān(27 March 1923)
See also
- Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo
- European interwar dictatorships
- İleri
- Kemalist historiography
- Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk
- List of covers ofTimemagazine (1920s)– 24 March 1923 and 21 February 1927
- Sun Language Theory
- Timeline of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
- Turkish History Thesis
- Turkish War of Independence
- Kemalism
Notes
- ^/ˈmʊstəfəkəˌmɑːlˈætətɜːrk/MUUSS-tə-fə kə-MAHLAT-ə-turk;Turkish:[mʊs'tafɑce'mɑʎ̟ɑtɑ'tyrc].
After theSurname Law of 1934,hefirstappeared asKemal AtatürkandthenasKamâl Atatürkon hisidentity documents.Seename section - ^Ottoman Turkish:مصطفی كمال پاشا,romanized:Mustafa Kemal Paşa;in thisOttoman Turkishstyle name, the given name is Mustafa Kemal, the title isPasha,and there is no family name.
- ^In this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name is Mustafa Kemal, the title isGhazi,and there is no family name.
- ^His birthday is unknown. 19 May–the day he landed to Samsun in 1919 to start the nationalist resistance–is considered his symbolic birthday. It was also claimed that he was born in 1880. SeePersonal life of Atatürk § Birth date
References
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24 Kasım 1934'te Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi 2587 sayılı kanunla Gazi Mustafa Kemal'e Atatürk soyadını verdi.
- ^abCuthell Jr., David Cameron (2009)."Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal)".In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.).Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.New York:Facts On File.pp. 56–60.ISBN978-0-8160-6259-1.LCCN2008020716.Retrieved23 January2021.
- ^"Atatürk, Kemal",World Encyclopedia,Philip's, 2014,doi:10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001,ISBN9780199546091,retrieved9 June2019
- ^Books, Market House Books Market House (2003), Books, Market House (ed.),"Atatürk, Kemal",Who's Who in the Twentieth Century,Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800916.001.0001,ISBN9780192800916,retrieved9 June2019
- ^Zürcher, Erik Jan (1993). "Biographical Notes".Turkey: a modern history(PDF).London: I.B. Tauris. p. 384.ISBN9781850436140.OCLC29416622.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 February 2023.Retrieved4 October2023.
- ^Lowe, Norman (1988).Mastering Modern World History.Macmillan Master Series (2nd ed.). Basingstoke or London: MacMillan Education.OCLC19922607.ISBN978-0333485538,978-0333465769,978-0333465776.
- ^Türkiye'nin 75 yılı,Tempo Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1998, pp. 48, 59, 250
- ^abSofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008).Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey.New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167.ISBN9780231700528.
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the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations
- ^"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün Nüfus Hüviyet Cüzdanı. (24.11.1934)".İşte Atatürk | Atatürk Hakkında Bilmek İstediğiniz Herşey.www.isteataturk.com.Archivedfrom the original on 5 October 2023.Retrieved3 October2023.
- ^"Turkey commemorates Atatürk on 78th anniversary of his passing".News > Türkiye > Local.Hürriyet Daily News.Ankara. 10 November 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 11 December 2021.Retrieved21 November2017.
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- ^abLandau, Jacob M. (1984)."Atatürk's Achievement: Some Considerations".Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey.A Westview Replica Edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Inc. and Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill. p. xiii.ISBN978-9004070707.LCCN83-16872.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2023.Retrieved27 October2020.
- ^"Balkan Pact and TurkeyArchived5 October 2022 at theWayback Machine"by Esra S. Değerli
- ^Afet İnan,Atatürk hakkında hâtıralar ve belgeler,Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1959,p. 8.Archived8 April 2023 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk".Turkish Embassy website. Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2007.Retrieved7 August2007.
- ^Ali Fuat Cebesoy,Sınıf arkadaşım Atatürk: okul ve genç subaylık hâtıraları,İnkılâp ve Aka Kitabevleri, 1967,p. 6.Archived8 April 2023 at theWayback MachineBenim adım Mustafa. Senin adın da Mustafa. Arada bir fark olmalı, ne dersin, senin adının sonuna bir de Kemal koyalım.
- ^Rustow, Dankwart A.(1968)."Atatürk as Founder of a State".Daedalus.97(3): 793–828.ISSN0011-5266.JSTOR20023842.Archivedfrom the original on 3 April 2022.Retrieved26 May2021.
- ^Mango,Atatürk,p. 37.
- ^abEnis Dinç (2020).Atatürk on Screen: Documentary Film and the Making of a Leader.p. 180.
- ^Murat Belge, Tanıl Bora, Murat Gültekingil.Milliyetçilik(2002), İletişim Yayınları,p. 254Archived4 June 2012 at theWayback Machine
- ^Tarama Dergisi(1934), volume 2,p. 1064Archived16 April 2024 at theWayback Machine
- ^Niyazi Ahmet Banoğlu,Atatürk'ün İstanbul'daki Hayatı,volume 2, Millî Eğitim Matbaası, 1974, p. 131.İstihbaratımıza nazaran, Atatürk'ün taşıdığı Kamâl adı Arapça bir kelime olmadığı gibi, Arapça Kemal kelimesinin delâlet ettiği manada da değildir. Atatürk'ün muhafaza edilen öz adı, Türkçe 'ordu ve kale' manasında olan Kamâl'dır. Son 'â' üstündeki tahfif işareti 'l'i yumuşattığı için, telâffuz hemen hemen Arapça 'Kemal' telâffuzuna yaklaşır.
- ^Méropi Anastassiadou; Méropi Anastassiadou-Dumont (1997).Salonique, 1830–1912: une ville ottomane à l'âge des Réformes.Brill. p. 71.ISBN978-90-04-10798-4.
- ^Cemal Çelebi Granda (2007).Cemal Granda anlatıyor.Pal Medya ve Organizasyon.ISBN978-9944-203-01-2.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2023.Retrieved27 June2015.[page needed]
- ^abZadrożna, Anna (31 July 2017)."Reconstructing the past in a post-Ottoman village: Turkishness in a transnational context".Nationalities Papers.45(4): 524–39.doi:10.1080/00905992.2017.1287690.S2CID132176422.
- ^Andrew MangoAtatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey,Overlook Press, 2002,ISBN978-1-58567-334-6,pp. 25–27Archived23 April 2023 at theWayback Machine,pp. 27ff. – "Feyzullah's family is said to have come from the country near Vodina (now Edhessa in western Greek Macedonia). The surname Sofuzade, meaning 'son of a pious man', suggests that the ancestors of Zübeyde and Ali Rıza had a similar background. Cemil Bozok, son of Salih Bozok, who was a distant cousin of Atatürk and, later, his ADC, claims to have been related to both Ali Rıza's and Zübeyde's families. This would mean that the families of Atatürk's parents were interrelated. Cemil Bozok also notes that his paternal grandfather, Safer Efendi, was of Albanian origin. This may have a bearing on the vexed question of Atatürk's ethnic origin. Atatürk's parents and relatives all used Turkish as their mother tongue. This suggests that some at least of their ancestors had originally come from Turkey, since local Muslims of Albanian and Slav origin who had no ethnic connection with Turkey spoke Albanian, Serbo-Croat or Bulgarian, at least so long as they remained in their native land.But in looks Atatürk resembled local Albanians and Slavs.[...] But there is no evidence that either Ali Riza or Zübeyde was descended from such Turkish nomads. "page 28;" It is much more likely that Atatürk inherited his looks from his Balkan ancestors.[...] But Albanians and Slavs are likely to have figured among his ancestors. "
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- ^Kartal, Numan.Atatürk ve Kocacık Türkleri(2002), T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı: "Aile Selânik'e Manastır ilinin Debrei Bâlâ sancağına bağlı Kocacık bucağından gelmişti. Ali Rıza Efendi'nin doğum yeri olan Kocacık bucağı halkı da Anadolu'dan gitme ve tamamıyla Türk, Müslüman Oğuzların Türkmen boylarındandırlar."
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His mother, Subeida, was the daughter of a small tenant of a farm in Southern Albania. According to such reliable evidence as I was able to collect, this blonde-haired, blue-eyed, robust woman was an Albanian whose mother, in turn, was a Macedonian. Mustapha Kemal with his blue eyes and blond hair resembled his...
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- ^"The Burial of Ataturk".Time.Time Magazine.23 November 1953.ISSN0040-781X.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2021.Retrieved26 May2021.
- ^"Atatürk's Last Will".www.ktb.gov.tr.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2021.Retrieved26 May2021.
- ^abMacfie, A.L.(2014).Atatürk.Routledge.p. 182.ISBN978-1-138-83-647-1.
- ^Can Dündar,Sarı Zeybek,Milliyet,1994, p. 103
- ^Navaro-Yashin, Yael (2002).Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey.Princeton University Press.pp. 196–99.ISBN978-0-691-08845-7.
- ^Morrison, Terry; Conaway, Wayne A. (1994).Kiss, Bow, Or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries.Adams Media. p.392.ISBN978-1-55850-444-8.
- ^Yonah, Alexander (2007).Turkey: Terrorism, Civil Rights, and the European Union.Routledge.p. 137.ISBN978-0-415-44163-6.
- ^"Turkish Telecommunications Presidency: Internet Hotline".Ihbarweb.org.tr.Archivedfrom the original on 5 October 2011.Retrieved10 November2012.
- ^Time to break out of legislative straitjacket that is stifling media freedomArchived19 March 2012 at theWayback Machine,Reporters Sans Frontières,1 December 2010
- ^abcM. Şükrü Hanioğlu (2011).Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography.Princeton University Press. p. 128.ISBN978-1-4008-3817-2.Archivedfrom the original on 6 November 2023.Retrieved5 June2013.
- ^"Hitler's Infatuation with Atatürk Revisited".Turkey Analyst. Archived fromthe originalon 23 January 2021.Retrieved19 April2021.
- ^O'Connor, William (24 November 2014)."The 20th-Century Dictator Most Idolized by Hitler".The Daily Beast.Archived fromthe originalon 4 February 2021.Retrieved19 April2021.
- ^Ihrig, Stefan (2014).Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 116.ISBN978-0-674-36837-8.
For example, in 1938, on his birthday, in a meeting with a delegation of Turkish politicians and journalists, he reaffirmed the primal and original role Atatürk had played for him and in doing so also pinpointed what was the essence of most far-right and Nazi interpretations of Atatürk in interwar Germany: "Atatürk was the first to show that it is possible to mobilize and regenerate the resources that a country has lost. In this respect Atatürk was a teacher; Mussolini was his first and I his second student."
- ^In hisaddress to the Reichstag on 4 May 1941,Adolf Hitlersaid:
"Turkey had been our ally in theWorld War.Its unfortunate result was as heavy a burden for Turkey as it was for us. The great and ingenious reconstructor of the new Turkey gave his Allies, beaten by fate, the first example of resurrection. While Turkey, thanks to the realistic attitude of her State leadership, preserved her independent attitude Yugoslavia fell a victim to British intrigues. "
- ^Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination – Stefan Ihrig.Belknap Press.2014.ISBN9780674368378.Archivedfrom the original on 12 July 2014.Retrieved30 June2019.
- ^Remarks on the 25th Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Atatürk, 4 November 1963Archived22 September 2018 at theWayback Machine.Audio file on: jfklibrary.org.
- ^Bernd Rill:Kemal Atatürk.Rowohlt, Reinbek 1985, p. 146.
- ^Halil Gülbeyaz:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Vom Staatsgründer zum Mythos.Parthas-Verlag, Berlin, 2004, p. 228.
- ^Girbeau, Sabine (18 August 2003)."Habib Bourguiba ou la modernité inachevée".Afrik.com.Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2018.Retrieved19 March2020.
- ^Huda Shaarawi's Diaries – Book of Al-Hilal, September / 1981
- ^Grey Wolf: Mustafa Kemal – An intimate study of a dictator(fifth cheap edition, July 1935), p. 333
- ^The Two Kemals; The Polished Aristocrat of European Circles in Contrast With the Ruthless Commander of Fanatical Turks,New York Times, 1 October 1922Archived5 March 2016 at theWayback Machine.
- ^"Atatürk'ün Madalya ve Nişanları".Archivedfrom the original on 15 March 2020.Retrieved15 March2020.
- ^"Atatürk'ün Rütbe, Nişan ve Madalyaları".Archivedfrom the original on 15 March 2020.Retrieved15 March2020.
- ^abMacfie, A.L.(2014) p. 43
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External links
- Works about Mustafa Kemal AtatürkatOpen Library
- Works by Mustafa Kemal AtatürkatOpen Library
- Works by or about Mustafa Kemal Atatürkat theInternet Archive
- Newspaper clippings about Mustafa Kemal Atatürkin the20th Century Press Archivesof theZBW
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