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Kīlauea

Coordinates:19°25′16″N155°17′12″W/ 19.421097472°N 155.286762433°W/19.421097472; -155.286762433
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For the town of Kīlauea on Kauai, seeKīlauea, Hawaii.

Kīlauea
Kīlauea's Ahu’aila’au cone erupting on the morning of June 28, 2018
Highest point
Elevation1,247 m (4,091 ft)[1]
Prominence15.3 m (50 ft)[2]
Coordinates19°25′16″N155°17′12″W/ 19.421097472°N 155.286762433°W/19.421097472; -155.286762433[1]
Geography
Kīlauea is located in Hawaii
Kīlauea
Kīlauea
LocationHawaiʻi,United States
Geology
Age of rock210,000 to 280,000 years old[3]
Mountain typeShield volcano,hotspot volcano
Volcanicarc/beltHawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
Last eruptionJune 2024

Kīlauea(US:/ˌkɪləˈweɪə/KIL-ə-WAY-ə,Hawaiian:[kiːlɐwˈwɛjə]) is an activeshield volcanoin theHawaiian Islands.It is located along the southeastern shore ofHawaii Island.The volcano is between 210,000 and 280,000 years old and grew above sea level about 100,000 years ago. Since the islands were settled, it has been the mostactiveof thefive volcanoesthat together form the island and among the most active volcanoes on Earth. The most recent eruption occurred on June 3, 2024, along fissures that opened on the volcano's southwest rift zone.

Kīlauea is the second-youngest product of theHawaiian hotspotand the current eruptive center of theHawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.Because it lackstopographic prominenceand its activities historically coincided with those ofMauna Loa,Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor. Kīlauea has a large, fairly recently formedcalderaat its summit and two activerift zones,one extending 125 km (78 mi) east and the other 35 km (22 mi) west. An activefaultof unknown depth moves vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm (0.1 to 0.8 in) per year.

Between 2008 and 2018,Halemaʻumaʻu,a pit crater located within Kīlauea's summit caldera, hosted an active lava lake. Kīlaueaerupted nearly continuously from vents on its eastern rift zone between January 1983 and April 2018,causing major property damage, including the destruction of the towns ofKalapanaandKaimūalong with the community's renownedblack sand beach,in 1990.

Beginning in May 2018,activity shifted further downrift from the summit to the lower Puna district,during which lava erupted from two dozen vents with eruptive fountains that sent rivers of lava into the ocean in three places. The eruption destroyed Hawaii'slargest natural freshwater lake,covered substantial portions ofLeilani Estatesand Lanipuna Gardens, and destroyed the communities ofKapoho,Vacationland Hawaii, and most of the Kapoho Beach Lots.[4][5]TheCounty of Hawaiireported that 716 dwellings were destroyed.[6]Concurrent with the activity downrift in lower Puna, the lava lake within Halemaʻumaʻu drained and a series of explosive collapse events occurred at the volcano's summit, with at least one explosion emitting ash 30,000 feet (9,100 m) into the air. This activity prompted a months-long closure of the Kīlauea section ofHawaii Volcanoes National Park.[7]The eruption ended in September 2018.[6]Since 2020, several eruptions have partially filled the enlarged caldera left by the 2018 collapse events with lava.

Background

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Kīlauea is aHawaiian wordthat means "spewing" or "much spreading", referring to its frequent outpouring oflava.Its earliest lavas date back to itssubmarine preshield stage.Samples were recovered byremotely operated underwater vehicles;samples of other flows were recovered ascore samples.Lavas younger than 1,000 years old cover 90 percent of the volcano's surface. The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years.

Radiocarbonandpaleomagneticdating identified a major eruption of Kīlauea around 1410, the first to be mentioned inNative Hawaiians'oral history.[8]Western contact and written history began in 1778. The first documented eruption of Kīlauea came in 1823 with repeated eruptions thereafter. Most occurred at the volcano's summit or its eastern rift zone, and were prolonged andeffusive.The geological record shows that pre-contactexplosiveactivity was common; in 1790one such eruptionkilled more than 400 people, making it thedeadliest volcanic eruptionin what became the United States.[9]

Kīlauea's eruption from January 3, 1983, to 2018 was by far its longest-duration period of activity in modern times, as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions documented on Earth; as of January 2011, the eruption had produced 3.5 km3(1 cu mi) of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2(48 sq mi) of land. Centuries prior to this event, the even largerʻAilāʻau eruptionof 1410 lasted about 60 years, ending in 1470 with an estimated volume of 4–6 km3(0.96–1.44 cu mi).[10]

Kīlauea's activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology, where plant growth is often interrupted by freshtephraand drifting volcanicsulfur dioxide,producingacid rainsparticularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as theKaʻū Desert.Nonetheless, wildlife flourishes left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highlyendemicthanks to Kīlauea's (and the island of Hawaiʻi's) isolation from the nearest continental landmass. Historically, the island's five volcanoes were considered sacred by theHawaiian people,and inHawaiian mythologyHalemaʻumaʻu served as the body and home ofPele,goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.[11]

EnglishmissionaryWilliam Ellisgave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks exploring the volcano. Since its foundation byThomas Jaggarin 1912, theHawaiian Volcano Observatory,for many years located on the rim ofKīlauea's summit caldera(Kaluapele), has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island. In 1916, a bill formingHawaii Volcanoes National Parkwas signed into law by PresidentWoodrow Wilson.The park is aWorld Heritage Siteand a major tourist destination, attracting roughly 2.6 million visitors annually.

Geology

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Setting

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Mauna LoaMauna KeaHualalaiKohala (mountain)
Location of Kīlauea onHawaiʻi island

Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Kīlauea was formed as thePacific tectonic platemoved over theHawaiian hotspotin the Earth's underlyingmantle.[12]Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has produced the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-longHawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.[13]The prevailing view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much of theCenozoicEra.[13][14]However, while the Hawaiianmantle plumeis well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains uncertain.[15]

Kīlauea is one of fivesubaerial(originating under water) volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii, originated from the Hawaiian hotspot.[16]The oldest volcano on the island,Kohala,is more than a million years old,[17]while Kīlauea, the youngest, is between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age.[16]Kamaʻehuakanaloa(the ruddy, reddish child of Kanaloa,[18]formerly Lōʻihi), on the island's flank, is younger and has yet to breach the surface.[19]Thus Kilauea is thesecondyoungest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, a chain ofshield volcanoesandseamountsextending fromHawaiito theKuril–Kamchatka TrenchinRussia.[20]

Kīlauea started as asubmarine volcano,gradually growing larger and taller via underwater eruptions ofalkali basaltlava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions[21]about 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano's activity has produced a continual stream ofeffusiveandexplosiveeruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity since records began to be kept.[22]

Hawaii island's oldest volcano,Kohala,experienced almost 900,000 years of activity before goingextinct.[17]Eruptionsandexplosiveactivity will make Kīlauea taller, build up its rift zones, and fill and refill Kaluapele.[22]

Structure

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Simulated true-colorLandsatmosaic
Kīlauea'ssummit caldera;volcanic gascan be seen rising out of Halemaʻumaʻu, within the caldera (January 2012)

Kīlauea has beenactivethroughout its history.[22]Cinder cones,satellite shields,lava tubes,and other eruptive structures are present, evidence of its recent activity.[23]Since 1918, Kīlauea's longest pause lasted 18 years between 1934 and 1952.[24]The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidifiedlava flows,intermixed withvolcanic ashandtephraproduced by lower-volumeexplosive eruptions.[22]Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows, while 90 percent of its surface is from the last 1,100 years.[25]Much of its bulk remains underwater;[21]its subaerial surface is a gently sloping, elongate, decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1,500 km2(579 sq mi),[26]making up 13.7 percent of the island's total surface area.[16]

Kīlauea lackstopographical prominence,appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank ofMauna Loa.Native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its host. However, lava analysis shows that the two have separatemagma chambers.Nonetheless, high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always the case; the1984 eruption of Mauna Loastarted during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoinginflationof Mauna Loa's summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea'sPuʻu ʻŌʻōcrater. In 2002, Kilauea experienced a high-volume effusive episode at the same time that Mauna Loa began inflating. This unexpected communication is evidence of crustal-level interactions between them.[27]Geologists suggested that "pulses" ofmagmaentering Mauna Loa's deeper magma system may have increasedpressureinside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions.[28]Mauna Loa began erupting on November 27, 2022, during Kīlauea's ongoing eruption, the first time since 1984 that both volcanoes were simultaneously erupting.

Kaluapele

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Kīlauea has a largesummit calderanamed Kaluapele (the pit of Pele),[18]measuring 4 by 3.2 km (2.5 by 2.0 mi) with walls up to 120 m (400 ft) high, breached by lava flows on the southwestern side.[24]The age of Kaluapele is unknown, and it is possible that it has appeared and disappeared multiple times.[22]Kaluapele likely formed over several centuries, beginning about 500 years ago,[29]while its present form was finalized around 1470–1510 after a particularly powerful eruption from 1410 to 1470.[22]A major feature within Kaluapele is Halemaʻumaʻu, a largepit craterand one of Kīlauea's most historically active eruption centers. The crater is approximately 920 m (3,018 ft) in diameter and 85 m (279 ft) deep, but its form has varied widely; its floor is mostly covered by flows from its 1974 eruption.[30]

Rift zones

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Kīlauea has tworift zonesradiating from its summit, one leading 125 km (78 mi) out to the east, the other 35 km (22 mi) long and trending towards the southwest.[22]A series of fault scarps connecting the rift zones form theKoaʻe Fault Zone.Tectonicextension along them is causing Kīlauea's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) per year, centered on a basaldécollementfault 7 to 9 km (4 to 6 mi) beneath the volcano's surface.[31]The eastern rift zone is a dominant feature on the volcano; it is almost entirely covered in lava from the last 400 years, and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km (1 to 2 mi) wide.[26]Non-localized eruptions, typical of rift zone activity,[22]have produced a series of low-lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone's length.[26]Its upper segment is the most active section.[25][29]It is the site of largepit craters.[23]It reaches down Kīlauea's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5,000 m (16,400 ft).[29]By contrast, the much smaller southwestern rift zone last had a rifting episode in 1974, and has not been active in the current eruptive cycle.[31]The southwestern rift zone's extremity is underwater, although its subaerial length is more limited. The southwestern rift zone lacks a well-defined ridge line and pit craters, evidence that it is less active than the eastern rift zone.[29]

Hilina fault system

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A prominent structure on Kīlauea's southern flank is theHilina fault system,an activefaultslipping vertically an average of2 to 20 mm (1⁄16to13⁄16in) per year.[clarification needed]Itsphysiographic provinceis 500 m (1,640 ft) deep, but it is unknown whether it is a shallowlistric faultor penetrates deeply.[12]

Eruptive history

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See also:List of Kīlauea eruptions

All historical eruptions occurred at either Kaluapele, the eastern rift zone, or the southwestern rift zone.[16]Half of Kīlauea's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kaluapele. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, capped by anexplosive eruptionin 1924, before petering out by 1934. Later activity mostly shifted to the eastern rift zone, the site of 24 historical eruptions, located mostly on its upper section. By contrast, the southwestern rift zone remained relatively quiet, hosting five events.[22]

Graph summarizing the eruptions of Kïlauea during the past 200 years. The Pu‘u ‘Ö‘ö- Kupaianaha eruption has continued into the 21st century. Information is sketchy for eruptions before 1823, when the first missionaries arrived on the Island of Hawai‘i. The total duration of eruptive activity in a given year, shown by the length of the vertical bar, may be for a single eruption or a combination of several separate eruptions.

Prehistoric eruptions

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Rainbowandvolcanic ashwithsulfur dioxideemissions fromHalemaʻumaʻu(April 2008)

Geologists dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano's history, bridging the gap between Kīlauea's oldest known rock and written records and historical observation.[32]Lava flows are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways. The oldest flows, 275,000 to 225,000 years ago, were recovered from Kīlauea's submerged southern slope byremotely operated vehicles.These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early,submergedpreshield-stageeruptive episodes, from when the volcano was a risingseamountyet to breach the ocean surface,[33]and their surface exposure is unusual, as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by later flows.[12]

The second method is by drillingcore samples;however, the cores are difficult to date.Paleomagnetic dating,limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea's emergence from the sea, suggested ages of around 50,000 years. Exposed flows above sea level are younger. Some of the oldest reliably dated rock is 43,000 years old. It comes fromcharcoalsandwiched beneath an ash layer on afault scarpknown as Hilina Pali; however, samples dated from higher up the scarp indicateashdeposition at an average rate of 6 m (20 ft) per thousand years, indicating that the oldest exposed flows, from the base of the feature, could date back as far as 70,000 years.[33]This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow, a southwesternrift zoneflow with uncorrectedradiocarbon datingof approximately 4650 BC.[32]

The oldest well-studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member, the product of explosive eruptions from 800 to 100 BC. Although it was mostly buried by younger flows, it remained exposed in some places, and was traced more than 20 km (12 mi) from Kaluapele, evidence of powerful eruptions. Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time, termed thePowers Caldera,whose fractures and faults lie 2 km (1 mi) outside Kaluapele. At least 1,200 years ago, lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure; this was followed by a period of voluminoustube-fedpāhoehoeflows from the summit. Following the end of activity around 1600 CE, eruptions moved to the eastern part of Kīlauea's summit, and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone.[29]

1410 to 1790

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The longest-duration major eruption witnessed by Native Hawaiians took place from about 1410 to 1470. Lasting around 60 years, the ʻAilāʻau eruption'seffusiveflow covered most of Kīlauea, north of the East Rift Zone in what became thePuna District.[34]Most likely due to the duration of this flow, the summit collapsed around 1470–1510, creating Kaluapele. These discoveries and the collapse of the summit were supplemented by translations of Native Hawaiian chants on the mythology of Pele andHiʻiaka;these events were interpreted from this story.[8][35]

After arriving in Hawaii, Pele made Kīlauea her home. She sent her sister Hiʻiaka to retrieve Lohiʻau, an attractive man she met on Kauaʻi, on the condition that Pele protect the forests of Puna if Hiʻiaka returned in 40 days. As the journey lasted longer than 40 days, Pele set fire to the forest. When Hiʻiaka finally returned with Lohiʻau and made the smoky discovery, she became angry and made love to Lohiʻau right in front of Pele. In retaliation, Pele then killed Lohiʻau before throwing him in a pit on the summit of Kīlauea. Hiʻiaka started digging ferociously to recover his body, letting rocks fly everywhere.

These events are interpreted to describe the ʻAilāʻau flow.[8][35]In addition to Hawaiian oral history, geologists studied and confirmed them with radiocarbon and paleomagnetic dating.[34]

Kīlauea then entered a 300-year period of explosive eruptions from around 1510 to 1790 as discovered by the radiocarbon dating of the Keanakākoʻi (the cave in whichadzeswere made) Tephra.[10][36]This tephra was formed after lava erupted hundreds of meters into the sky and spread ash across the area.[37]

1790 to 1934

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The earliest reliable written records date to about 1820,[38]and the first eruption well-documented by westerners occurred in 1823.[22]One pre-contact eruption in particular, aphreatomagmaticevent in 1790,[24]was responsible for the death of a party of warriors, part of the army ofKeōua Kuahuʻula,the last Hawaii island chief to resistKamehameha I's rule; their death is evidenced byfootprintspreserved within theHawai‘i Volcanoes National Park- it is listed on theNational Register of Historic Places.[38]Kīlauea was the site of 61 separate eruptions between 1823 and 2024, making it one of Earth's most active volcanoes.[16][24]

Kīlauea's upper sulphur bank; painting by British geologistJames Gay Sawkins,1855

The volume of lava expelled by Kīlauea varied widely across eruptions. After 1823 Kaluapele gradually filled, filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption, with 3 km3(1 cu mi) of lava released by 1840. The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in lava volume. In the thirty years between then and about 1950, the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited little activity; Kīlauea's eruptive volume increased steadily thereafter, with activity comparable to that of the early 1800s.[22]

The length and origin of these eruptions varied. Events lasted anywhere between days and years, and occurred at a number of different sites. Activity around Kaluapele was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907, continued until 1924.

Effusive eruptionsare of relatively recent vintage there. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Kīlauea was the site of regularexplosiveactivity, evidenced by tribal chants..[39]

Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption after 1790 occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site of a large, effusiveHawaiian eruptionover 35 km (22 mi) of its length, unusually long even for a rift eruption.[40]The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava;[24]the light generated by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper inHiloat night, 30 km (19 mi) away.[40]

Painting of the 1891 eruption

The volcano was active again in 1868, 1877, 1884, 1885, 1894, and 1918,[24]before its next major eruption in 1918–1919. Halemaʻumaʻu, then a small upwelling in Kaluapele floor, was topped by alava lakethat then drained and refilled, forming a lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of Kaluapele before draining once more. This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki, building up the lava shield on the volcano's southwest rift zone over eight months. The eruption featured concurrent rift activity andlava fountaining.[41]

Activity in 1921–1923 followed.[24]The next major eruption occurred in 1924. Halemaʻumaʻu first drained, then quickly began sinking, deepening to nearly 210 m (689 ft) beneath a thick cloud ofvolcanic ash.Explosive activity began on May 10, blowing out rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg (99 lb) 60 m (197 ft), and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg (20 lb) as far as 270 m (886 ft). After a brief reprieve, the eruption intensified through a major blast on May 18, when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption's only fatality. The eruption continued and formed numerouseruption columnsabove 9 km (6 mi) in height, declining and ending by May 28.[39][42]Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit, and ended after 1934.[24]From 1823 to 1924, the volcano erupted 15 times, with an additional 11subsidenceevents occurring at the summit.[43]

1952 to 1982

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The Mauna Ulu eruption of 1969 generated a 300-metre (1,000 ft)-high lava fountain

After the Halemaʻumaʻu event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and for a time, completely silent, with activity confined to the summit.[24]The volcano came alive again in 1952, with a lava fountain 245 m (800 ft) high at Halemaʻumaʻu. Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m (50 and 100 ft) persisted, and the eruption lasted 136 days.[44]Eruptions followed in 1954, 1955, and 1959, capped by a large event in 1960, when fissure-basedphreatic eruptionand earthquake activity gave way to a massiveʻaʻāflow overran evacuated communities and resorts; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further.[45]

After 1960 eruptive events occurred frequently until August 2018. The period 1967–1968 saw a particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaʻumaʻu.[24]In 1969 the marathonMauna Ulueruption was an effusive eruption that lasted from May 24, 1969, to July 24, 1974, and added 230 acres (93 ha) of land to the island. Afterwards a magnitude 7.2earthquakecaused a partial summit collapse, after which activity paused until 1977.[46]At the time, Mauna Ulu was the longest flank recorded eruption of any Hawaiianvolcano.The eruption formed a new vent, covered a large area of land withlava,and enlarged the island. The eruption started as a fissure between twopit craters,ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae, where the Mauna Ulu shield eventually formed. Bothpāhoehoeandʻaʻālava erupted from the volcano. Fountains of lava surged as much as 540 meters (1772 ft) into the air. In early 1973, an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near Mauna Ulu and instead erupt near the cratersPauahiand Hiʻiaka.[46]

1983–2018

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Main articles:Puʻu ʻŌʻōandHalemaʻumaʻu
Puʻu ʻŌʻōat dusk, June 1983

Another eruption occurred from January 1983 to September 2018. It had the longest duration of any observed eruption at this volcano. As of December 2020,it was the twelfth-longest duration volcanic eruption on Earth since 1750.[47]The eruption began on January 3, 1983, along the eastern rift zone. Theventproduced lava fountains that quickly built up into thePuʻu ʻŌʻōcone,sending lava flows downslope.

In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaʻianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaʻianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, andlava tubesfed flows extending 11 to 12 km (about 7 mi) to the sea. Between 1986 and 1991, the connection betweenChain of Craters RoadandHawaii Route 130was cut, and the community of Kapa’ahu, the village ofKalapana,and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava.[48]A black sand beach atKaimūwas engulfed.[49]In 1992, the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō, but continued in the same manner, covering nearly all of the 1983–86 lava flows and large areas of coastline.[50]

As of the end of 2016, the east rift zone eruption had produced 4.4 km3(1 cu mi) of lava, covered 144 km2(56 sq mi) of land, added 179 ha (442 acres) of land to the island, destroyed 215 structures, and buried 14.3 km (9 mi) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m (115 ft).[51]

In addition to the nearly continuous activity at Puʻu ʻOʻo and other vents on the east rift zone, a separate eruption began at Kilauea's summit in March 2008. On March 19, 2008, following several months of increased sulfur dioxide emissions and seismic tremor, a new vent opened at Halemaʻumaʻu. Following this event, a new crater formed in the explosion, informally named the "Overlook Crater," emitting a thick gas plume that obscured views into the vent. Explosive events occurred at the vent throughout 2008.[52]

On September 5, 2008, scientists observed a lava pond deep within the Overlook Crater for the first time. Beginning in February 2010, a lava pond was visible at the bottom of the crater almost continuously through the beginning of May 2018. Lava briefly overflowed the vent onto the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu in April and May 2015, October 2016, and April 2018.[52][53][54]

2018 eruptive episodes

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Main article:2018 lower Puna eruption
Lava from a fissure slowly advanced to the northeast on Hoʻokupu Street in Leilani Estates subdivision (May 5, 2018)

Beginning in March 2018, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory began to detect rapid inflation at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō,[55]leading scientists to warn that the increased pressure could form a new vent at Kilauea.[56]

Following weeks of increased pressure, the crater floor of the cone of Puʻu ʻŌʻō collapsed on April 30, 2018, as magma migrated underground into the lower Puna region of Kilauea's lower east rift zone.[57]Over the next few days, hundreds of small earthquakes were detected on Kīlauea's Eastrift zone,leading officials to issue evacuation warnings. On May 3, 2018, new fissures formed, and lava began erupting in lower Puna after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, causing evacuations of theLeilani Estatesand Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions.[58][59]

A seemingly related6.9 magnitude earthquakeoccurred on May 4.[60]By May 9, 27 houses had been destroyed in Leilani Estates.[61][62]

Kilauea Volcano Fissure 8 captured on May 3rd, 2019

By May 21, two lava flows had reached the Pacific Ocean, creating thick clouds oflaze(a toxic lava and haze cloud made up ofhydrochloric acidand glass particles).[63]

By May 31, lava had destroyed 87 houses in Leilani Estates and nearby areas, accompanied by additional evacuation orders, including for the town ofKapoho.[64][65]By June 4, the lava had crossed through Kapoho and entered the ocean. The confirmed number of houses lost reached 159,[66]then two weeks later, 533,[67]and ultimately 657.[68]

Two views of Halemaʻumaʻu from roughly the same vantage point. At left is the view from 2008, with a distinct gas plume from the Overlook vent, the location of what would become a long-lived lava lake. At right is a view of Halemaʻumaʻu after the eruptive events of 2018, showing the collapsed crater.
Two views of Halemaʻumaʻu from roughly the same vantage point. At left is the view from 2008, with a distinct gas plume from the Overlook vent, the location of what would become a long-lived lava lake. At right is a view of Halemaʻumaʻu after the eruptive events of 2018, showing the collapsed crater.

The lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu began to drop on May 2.[57]The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory warned that this increased the potential for phreatic (steam) explosions at the summit caused by interaction of magma with the underground water table, similar to the explosions that occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu in 1924. These concerns prompted the closure of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[69]On May 17, at approximately 4:15 a.m., an explosive eruption occurred at Halemaʻumaʻu, creating a plume of ash 30,000 feet into the air.[70]This marked the beginning of a series of vigorous explosions that produced significant ash plumes from Halemaʻumaʻu.[71]These explosions, accompanied by large earthquakes and inward slumping and collapse within and around Halemaʻumaʻu, continued until early August.[72][73]

2019–20: Water lake appears at the summit

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In late July 2019, a water lake appeared on the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu for the first time in over 200 years,[74]as water from the rebounding water table began to enter the crater. The crater lake gradually grew in size.[75]On December 1, 2020, the lake was approximately 49 metres (161 ft) deep.[76]Meanwhile, the temperature of the lake's surface, as measured by athermal camera,generally measured between 70–85 °C (158–185 °F).[77]Within a month, the water lake was replaced by a lava lake during the new eruption.

December 2020 – May 2021 summit eruption

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View of the eruption from outside Kaluapele, on December 20, 2020

On December 20, 2020, at 9:30 pm local time, an eruption broke out within Halemaʻumaʻu. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory reported that three vents were feeding lava into the bottom of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater, boiling off the water lake that had been growing since summer 2019 and replacing it with a lava lake.[78]The eruption produced a plume that reached 30,000 feet (9,144 m) in the air. The eruption was preceded by earthquake swarms centered at Kaluapele on November 30, 2020, and December 2, 2020, the second of which was interpreted as a smallintrusionof magma.[79]By the following morning, the eruption had stabilized. Two of the three vents remained active and continued to fill the floor with lava.[80]By 7:30 a.m. on December 25, 2020, the lava lake had filled in 176 metres (577 ft) of the crater,[81]On January 8, 2021, depth had increased to 636 feet (194 m),[82]and by February 24 to 216 metres (709 ft). Aspatter conehad formed around the western vent.[83]

The eruption continued for another few months, with decreasing activity. On May 26, 2021, it was no longer erupting. Lava supply appeared to have ceased between May 11 and May 13, and the lake had crusted over by May 20. The last surface activity in Halemaʻumaʻu was observed on May 23.[84][85]When activity ceased, the lava lake was 229 metres (751 ft) deep.[86]

On August 23, 2021, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory raised Kīlauea's alert status from "Yellow/Advisory" to "Orange/Watch" due to an earthquake swarm and a concurrent increase in ground deformation at the summit.[87]The observatory returned Kīlauea's alert status to "Yellow/Advisory" two days later.[88]

September 2021 summit eruption

[edit]
Eruptive activity within Halemaʻumaʻu crater in January 2023

The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory recorded increased earthquake activity and changes in ground deformation patterns at Kīlauea's summit at about noon local time on September 29, 2021.[89]An eruption began at 3:20 p.m. local time when several fissures opened within Halemaʻumaʻu crater.[90]During the initial stages of the eruption, lava erupted in fountains more than 200 feet (61 m) tall. The fountain heights declined as the level of lava in the crater rose, partially drowning the erupting vents.[91]

Lava continued to erupt at Halemaʻumaʻu throughout the fall. Overflight measurements from October 5, 2022, indicated that 111 million m3(29 billion U.S. gal) of lava had been effused, and that the floor of Halemaʻumaʻu had risen 143 meters (469 ft), since the beginning of this eruption.[92][93]The eruption paused on December 9, and the alert level was reduced accordingly on December 13, 2022, though seismic activity was still unsettled.[94]

2023 summit eruptions

[edit]

Eruptive activity within Halemaʻumaʻu resumed on January 5, 2023.[95]The eruption ended 61 days later on March 7, 2023.[96]

On June 7, 2023, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory detected a glow in web camera images atop Kilauea, indicating that an eruption had begun in the Halemaʻumaʻu crater, within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.[97]The eruptive episode ended after twelve days on June 19, 2023.[98]

2023's third Halemaʻumaʻu eruption episode occurred from September 10 to September 16, 2023, when multiple vents opened.[99]

2024 eruption

[edit]

Shortly after midnight on June 3, 2024, an eruption began on Kīlauea's upper southwest rift zone. The eruption lasted about 8.5 hours before pausing.[100][101]

Hazards

[edit]

In 2018, theUSGS National Volcanic Threat Assessmentgave Kīlauea an overall threat score of 263, and ranked it first among volcanoes in the United States most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.[102]

Volcanic Explosivity Index

[edit]

TheGlobal Volcanism Programassigned aVolcanic Explosivity Index(VEI; the higher the number, the more explosive) to 90 of Kīlauea's 96 known eruptions of the last 11,700 years. Theeruption of 1790received a VEI of 4.[103]The 1983–2018 eruption was marked 3.[104]The eruptions of 1820, 1924, 1959 and 1960 received 2s. The eruptions of 680, 1050, 1490, 1500, 1610, 1868 and four eruptions in 1961 scored a 1. The other seventy-four stayed at 0.[103]

Volcanic Explosivity Index for Kīlauea
VEI Number ofHoloceneeruptions for which a VEI has been assigned (total=91)
VEI 0
75
VEI 1
10
VEI 2
4
VEI 3
1
VEI 4
1

Oral traditions

[edit]

Native Hawaiians have passed down ancientoral traditionssurrounding the volcanoes ever since they settled on the islands. These oral histories provide rich cultural and geologic knowledge. In the field of volcanology, the use of oral history emerged from obscurity to become a resource for understanding the eruption history of a given region. While oral history has been used to confirm previously known geologic data, it can be used to assess hazards surrounding an eruption, in addition to guiding the rehabilitation of affected communities.[105]

Using the oral history of theʻAilāʻaueruption, volcanologists learned that Kīlauea was much more explosive than previously thought. Given its eruption history, the tradition predicts a long period of explosive eruptions.[37]Hawaiian chants provided clues that surface water had been found at the summit in earlier times. The story of Pele and Hiʻiaka recorded extensive lava flows, as well as a collapse of Kaluapele in about 1500.[18]

Ecology

[edit]

Background

[edit]
ʻŌhiʻa(Metrosideros polymorpha) growing on a barren lava field dating from 1986, formerly the village ofKalapana, Hawaii.The myrtle in this picture, taken in 2009, may have since been covered over—fresh flows in 2010 partially re-covered the area.

Because of its position more than 3,000 km (1,864 mi) from the nearest continental landmass, the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses; this strongly influenced its ecology. The majority of the species present on the island areendemic,the result of its isolated lineage sheltered; its ecosystem is vulnerable toinvasive speciesand to human development–an estimated one-third of the island's natural flora and fauna is extinct.[106]

Kīlauea's ecological community is further threatened by the volcano itself;[23]lava flows often overrun and incinerate forest sections, while ash smothers local plant life. Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of ash deposits are evidence of this destruction. Parts of the volcano's slopes display the dichotomy between pristine montane forest and volcanic "deserts" yet to berecolonized.[107]

Kīlauea's bulk affects local climate through the influence oftrade windscoming predominantly from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcano's height, result in a moister windward side and an arid leeward flank. The volcano's ecology reflects its height, and by the distribution of volcanic products, making for varied soil conditions. The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and receives more than 75 in (191 cm) mean annual rainfall, and is mostly a lowland wet community; farther south, with precipitation less than 50 in (127 cm) mean annual rainfall, is considered mostly a lowland dry environment.[108]

Ecosystems

[edit]
The ʻamakihi (Chlorodrepanis virens) is one of the many birds that live on the volcano's flanks.

Much of Kīlauea's southern section lies within the national park. It offersaʻeferns,ʻōhiʻatrees (Metrosideros polymorpha), andhapu’uofgenusCibotiumare common.[109]The park hosts many bird species, including theʻapapane(Himatione sanguinea);ʻamakihi(Hemignathus virens);iʻiwi(Vestiaria coccinea);‘ōma’o(Myadestes obscurus),ʻelepaio(Chasiempis sp.); and theendangeredʻakepa(Loxops coccineus),ʻakiapolaʻau(Hemignathus munroi),nēnē(Branta sandvicensis),ʻuaʻu(Pterodroma sandwichensis), andʻio(Buteo solitarius) species.[110]The coast hosts three of the island's nine knowncritically endangeredhawksbill sea turtle(Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites.[111]

Some of the area alongside the southwestern rift zone takes the form of theKaʻū Desert.Although not a "true" desert (rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1,000 mm (39 in) a year), precipitation mixing with drifting volcanicsulfur dioxideformsacid rainwith apHas low as 3.4, greatly hampering plant growth.[112]The depositedtephraparticulates make the local soil very permeable. Plant life there is practically nonexistent.[113]

Kīlauea's northern lowland wet-forest ecosystem is partially protected by thePuna Forest Reserveand the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve. At 27,785 acres (11,244 ha),Wao Kele o PunaisHawaiʻi's largest lowlandwet forestreserve, and is home to rare plant species includinghāpuʻuferns (Cibotiumspp.),ʻieʻievines (Freycinetia arborea), andkōpiko(Psychotria mariniana), some of which play a role in limiting invasive species' spread.ʻOpeʻapeʻa(Lasiurus cinereus semotus)ʻio(Buteo solitarius), commonʻamakihi(Hemignathus virens), andnananana makakiʻi(Theridion grallator) live in the trees. Many more as-yet-undocumented species are thought to lie within the forest.[114][115]Wao Kele's primary forest tree isʻōhiʻa lehua(Metrosideros polymorpha).[116]

Human history

[edit]

Ancient Hawaiian

[edit]

The firstAncient Hawaiiansto arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful.[117]Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source.[118]Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly bird species, while introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates.[119]The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some caused by their use of fire, but the main cause appears to have been thePolynesian rat(Rattus exulans).[120]

The summits of the island's volcanoes are revered assacred mountains.In oneHawaiian mythology,sky fatherWākeamarriesearth motherPapa,giving birth to the islands.[118]Kīlauea itself means "spewing" or "much spreading" inHawaiian,[16]and Kīlauea is the body of the deityPele,goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.[121]The conflict between Pele and therain godKamapuaʻawas centered there; Halemaʻumaʻu, "House of theʻamaʻumaʻufern ", derives its name from the struggle between the two gods. Kamapuaʻa, hard-pressed by Pele's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will, covered the feature, a favorite residence of the goddess, with fern fronds. Choked by trapped smoke, Pele emerged. Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction, the other gods called a draw and divided the island between them, with Kamapuaʻa getting the moistwindwardnortheastern side, and Pele directing the drier Kona (orleeward) side. The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu are said to be a product of the legendary struggle.[122][118]

Modern era

[edit]
Students collecting GPS data for the USGS in Kīlauea's eastern rift zone in 2015

The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii wasJames Cookin 1778.[123]The first non-native to observe Kīlauea in detail wasWilliam Ellis,an Englishmissionarywho in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano. He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features.[124]

Wikisourcehas original text related to this article:

Another missionary, C. S. Stewart, U.S.N., wrote of it in his journalA Residence in the Sandwich Island,whichLetitia Elizabeth Landonquoted from in the notes to her poetical illustration to an engraving of a painting byWilliam Ellisafter F Howard,The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-Ain Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832.[125]

One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea wasJames Dwight Dana,who studied and wrote about the island's volcanoes for decades first-hand.[126]Dana visited Kīlauea's summit in 1840.[127]After publishing a summary paper in 1852, he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881. He did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano, instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa; geologistC. E. Duttonelaborated on Dana's research during an 1884 expedition. His work led Kīlauea to be accepted as a separate entity.[128]: 154–155 

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory

[edit]
Steam venting from fissures inside Kaluapele, October 2022

The next era of Kīlauea's history began with the establishment of theHawaiian Volcano Observatoryin 1912. The first permanent such installation in the United States, the observatory was the brainchild ofThomas Jaggar,head of geology at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology.After witnessing the devastation of the1908 Messina earthquakenearMount Etnain Italy, he declared that systematic volcanic and seismic study was requirede, and chose Kīlauea as the initial site. After securing funding from MIT and theUniversity of Hawaiʻi,Jaggar served as director of the observatory between 1912 and 1940. He pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of the volcano.[129]After initial funding ran out, the Observatory was funded by theNational Weather Service,USGS,and theNational Park Servicein turn. USGS reclaimed the observatory and funded it after 1946. The main building moved twice since establishment, and today sits on the northwest rim of Kaluapele.[130]

NASAused the area to trainApollo Astronautsin recognizing volcanic features, planning traverses, collecting samples and taking photographs. Training took place in April 1969, April 1970, December 1970, December 1971, and June 1972. Astronauts ofApollo 12,Apollo 14,Apollo 15,Apollo 16andApollo 17used this training on the Moon. Notable geologist instructors includedWilliam R. Muehlberger.[131]

Research

[edit]

In October 2019, January 2020, and December 2020, USGFS volcanologists used adroneto study gases inside the water lake at the summit, as it was too dangerous for humans to approach. After the lake boiled away, they used the drone to study the resulting gas plumes.[132]

In 2022, researchers reported that Kīlauea's seismic waves could be used to predict future outbreaks. These waves can last for tens of seconds. After the 2007 eruption ended, they analyzed thousands of events from seismic sensors, GPS stations, and lake height observations, including variables such as temperature and gas bubble density. They reported that magma temperature was associated with seismic signal duration and bubble quantity and composition.[133]

Tourism

[edit]
See also:Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
View from the edge ofKilauea Iki:across Kaluapele, Halemaʻumaʻu is emitting fume on the left side of Kaluapele, whileMauna Loatowers above in the background (March 2013)

Kīlauea became a tourist attraction in the 1840s, and businessmen such asBenjamin PitmanandGeorge Lycurgusoperated a series of hotels at the rim, includingVolcano House,which is the only hotel or restaurant located withinHawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park.[134]

In 1891,Lorrin A. Thurston,investor in hotels along the volcano's rim, began campaigning for a park, boosting an idea proposed byWilliam Richards Castle, Jr.in 1903. Thurston, who owned theHonolulu Advertisernewspaper, printed editorials in favor of the idea; by 1911 GovernorWalter F. Frearhad proposed a draft bill to create "Kilauea National Park". Following endorsements fromJohn Muir,Henry Cabot Lodge,and former PresidentTheodore Roosevelt(in opposition to local ranchers) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegateJonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole,House Resolution 9525 was signed into law byWoodrow Wilsonon August 1, 1916. It was the country's 11th National Park, and the first in a Territory.[135]Originally called "Hawaii National Park", it was split fromHaleakala National Parkon September 22, 1960. Today, the park, renamed theHawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park,is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction, and, since 1987, aWorld Heritage Site.[136]

Hawaii tourism grew slowly before exploding with the advent ofjet airlinertravel around 1959. Kīlauea, as one of the few chronically erupting volcanoes, was a major part of the island's tourist draw.[137]According to the National Park Service, Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2.6 million people annually.[138]TheThomas A. Jaggar Museumwas a popular tourist stop. Located at the edge of Kaluapele, the museum's observation deck offered the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaʻumaʻu; however, the museum closed indefinitely after the building housing sustaining structural damage from earthquakes associated with the 2018 eruptions.[139]

Glowing lava at sunset, seen from near Volcano House, October 2022

Volcano House provides lodging within the park, while additional housing options are available in theVolcano Village.Visitors associated with the military can find lodging at theKilauea Military Camp.The park provides hiking trails, points of interest, and guided ranger programs.[140][141]

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