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Sinterklaas

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Sinterklaas
Sinterklaas and his companionZwarte Piet
Known forDelivering gifts to children on St Nicholas' Eve

Sinterklaas(Dutch:[ˌsɪntərˈklaːs]) orSint-Nicolaas(Dutch:[sɪntˈnikoːlaːs]ⓘ) is a legendary figure based onSaint Nicholas,patron saint of children. Other Dutch names for the figure includeDe Sint( "The Saint" ),De Goede Sint( "The Good Saint" ) andDe Goedheiligman( "The Good Holy Man" ). Many descendants and cognates of "Sinterklaas" or "Saint Nicholas" in other languages are also used in the Low Countries, nearby regions, and former Dutch colonies.[note 1]

The feast of Sinterklaas celebrates thename day of Saint Nicholason 6 December. The feast is celebrated annually with the giving of gifts on St. Nicholas' Eve (5 December) in the Netherlands and on the morning of 6 December, Saint Nicholas Day, Belgium, Luxembourg, western Germany, northern France (French Flanders, Lorraine, Alsace and Artois), Romania, Poland and Hungary. The tradition is also celebrated in some territories of the former Dutch Empire, including Aruba.[citation needed]

Sinterklaas is one of the sources of the popular Christmas icon ofSanta Claus(Santa=Sinter, Claus=Klaas).[1][2]

Figures

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Sinterklaas

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Sinterklaas played byBram van der Vlugt

Sinterklaasis based on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas (270–343), a Greek bishop ofMyrain present-day Turkey. He is depicted as an elderly, stately and serious man with white hair and a long, full beard. He wears a long red cape orchasubleover a traditional white bishop'salband a sometimes-redstole,dons a redmitreand ruby ring, and holds a gold-colouredcrosier,a long ceremonial shepherd's staff with a fancy curled top.[3]

He traditionally rides awhite horse.In the Netherlands, the last horse was calledAmerigo,but he was "pensioned" (i.e., died) in 2019 and replaced with a new horse calledOzosnel( "oh so fast" ), after a passage in a well-known Sinterklaas song.[4]In Belgium, the horse is namedSlecht weer vandaag,meaning "bad weather today"[5]orMooi weer vandaag( "nice weather today" ).[6]

Sinterklaas carries a big, red book which records whether each child has been good or naughty in the past year.[7]

Zwarte Piet

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Main article:Zwarte Piet

Sinterklaas is assisted byZwarte Piet( "Black Pete" ), a helper dressed in Moorish attire and inblackface.Zwarte Piet first appeared in print as the nameless servant of Saint Nicholas inSint-Nikolaas en zijn knecht( "St. Nicholas and His Servant" ), published in 1850 by Amsterdam schoolteacher Jan Schenkman; however, the tradition appears to date back at least as far as the early 19th century.[8]Zwarte Piet's colourful dress is based on 16th-century noble attire, with aruff(lacecollar) and a feathered cap. He is typically depicted carrying a bag which contains candy for the children, which he tosses around, a tradition supposedly originating in the story of Saint Nicholas saving three young girls from prostitution by tossing golden coins through their window at night to pay theirdowries.

Traditionally, he would also carry a birch rod (Dutch:roe), achimney sweep's broom made of willow branches, used to spank children who had been naughty. Some of the older Sinterklaas songs make mention of naughty children being put in Zwarte Piet's bag and being taken back to Spain. This part of the legend refers to the times that theMoors raided the European coasts,and as far as Iceland, to abduct the local people into slavery. This quality can be found in othercompanions of Saint Nicholassuch asKrampusandPère Fouettard.[9]In modern versions of the Sinterklaas feast, however, Zwarte Piet no longer carries theroeand children are no longer told that they will be taken back to Spain in Zwarte Piet's bag if they have been naughty.

Over the years many stories have been added, and Zwarte Piet has developed into a valuable assistant to the absent-minded saint. In modern adaptations for television, Sinterklaas has developed a Zwarte Piet for every function, such as a Head Piet (Hoofdpiet), a Navigation Piet (Wegwijspiet) to navigate the steamboat from Spain to the Netherlands, a Presents Piet (Pakjespiet) to wrap all the gifts, and Acrobatic Piet to climb roofs and chimneys.[10]Traditionally Zwarte Piet's face is said to be black because he is aMoorfrom Spain.[11]Today, some children are told that his face is blackened withsootbecause he has to climb through chimneys to deliver gifts for Sinterklaas.

A person in costume as the modernized "Sooty Pete" version ofZwarte Piet

Since the 2010s, the traditions surrounding the holiday of Sinterklaas have been the subject of a growing number of editorials, debates, documentaries, protests and even violent clashes at festivals.[12]In most cities and television channels now only display Zwarte Piet characters with some soot smudges on the face rather than full blackface, so-calledroetveegpieten( "soot-smudge Petes" ) orschoorsteenpieten( "chimney Petes" ).[13][14] In a 2013 survey, 92 per cent of the Dutch public did not perceive Zwarte Piet as racist or associate him with slavery, and 91 per cent were opposed to altering the character's appearance.[15]In a similar survey in 2018, between 80 and 88 per cent of the Dutch public did not perceive Zwarte Piet as racist, and between 41 and 54 per cent were happy with the character's modernised appearance (a mix ofroetveegpietenand blackface).[16][17] A June 2020 survey saw a drop in support for leaving the character's appearance unaltered: 47 per cent of those surveyed supported the traditional appearance, compared to 71 per cent in a similar survey held in November 2019.[18]Prime MinisterMark Ruttestated in a parliamentary debate on 5 June 2020 that he had changed his opinion on the issue and now has more understanding for people who consider the character's appearance to be racist.[19]

Celebration

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In the Netherlands, Sinterklaas is a very popular tradition.[20]The festival is celebrated by a wide range of people including Dutch Jews and Muslims,[21][22]and by generally all age groups. However, a 2023 survey showed that most are "less keen" to celebrate following the controversy surroundingZwarte Piet.[20]

Arrival from Spain

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Sinterklaas and his Zwarte Piet helpers arriving bysteamboatfrom Spain
Sinterklaas arriving inGroningenin 2015

The festivities traditionally begin each year in mid-November (the first Saturday after 11 November), when Sinterklaas "arrives" by a steamboat at a designated seaside town, supposedly from Alicante (Spain). In the Netherlands this takes place in a different port each year, whereas in Belgium it always takes place in the city ofAntwerp.The steamboat anchors, then Sinterklaas disembarks and parades through the streets on his horse, welcomed by children cheering and singing traditional Sinterklaas songs.[23]HisZwarte Pietassistants throw candy and small, round, gingerbread-like cookies, eitherkruidnotenorpepernoten,into the crowd. The event is broadcast live on national television in the Netherlands and Belgium.

Following this national arrival, other towns celebrate their ownintocht van Sinterklaas(arrival of Sinterklaas). Local arrivals usually take place later on the same Saturday of the national arrival, the next day (Sunday), or one weekend after the national arrival. In places a boat cannot reach, Sinterklaas arrives by train, horse, horse-drawn carriage or even a fire truck.

Sinterklaas is said to come from Spain, possibly because in 1087, half of Saint Nicholas' relics were transported to the Italian city ofBari,which later formed part of the SpanishKingdom of Naples.Others suggest thatmandarin oranges,traditionally gifts associated with St. Nicholas, led to the misconception that he must have been from Spain. This theory is backed by a Dutch poem documented in 1810 in New York and provided with an English translation:[24][25]

The text presented here comes from a pamphlet thatJohn Pintardreleased in New York in 1810. It is the earliest source mentioning Spain in connection toSinterklaas.Pintard wanted St. Nicholas to become patron saint of New York and hoped to establish aSinterklaastradition. Apparently he got help from the Dutch community in New York, that provided him with the original DutchSinterklaaspoem. Strictly speaking, the poem does not state that Sinterklaascomesfrom Spain, but that he needs togoto Spain to pick up the oranges andpomegranates.So the link between Sinterklaas and Spain goes through the oranges, a much appreciated treat in the 19th century. Later the connection with the oranges got lost, and Spain became his home. Traditionally, the city of origin of the steamboat has been the port city of Alicante (Spain). This could be based on the fact that Alicante's patron is Saint Nicholas, and that the city's cathedral is dedicated to this saint. The province of Alicante is also famous for its oranges.

Period leading up to Saint Nicholas' Eve

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Kruidnoten,small, roundgingerbread-likecookies

In the weeks between his arrival and 5 December, Sinterklaas visits schools, hospitals, and shopping centres. He is said to ride his white-grey horse over the rooftops at night, delivering gifts through the chimney to the well-behaved children. Traditionally, naughty children risked being caught by Black Pete, who carried a jute bag and willow cane for that purpose.[26]

Before going to bed, children each leave a single shoe next to the fireplace chimney of the coal-fired stove or fireplace (or in modern times close to thecentral heating radiator,or a door). They leave the shoe with a carrot or some hay in it and a bowl of water nearby "for Sinterklaas' horse", and the children sing a Sinterklaas song. The next day they find some candy or a small present in their shoes.

Typical Sinterklaas treats traditionally includemandarin oranges,pepernoten,speculaas(sometimes filled withalmond paste),banketletter(pastry filled with almond paste) or achocolate letter(the first letter of the child's name made out of chocolate),chocolate coins,suikerbeest(animal-shaped figures made ofsugary confection), andmarzipanfigures. Newer treats include gingerbread biscuits and a figurine of Sinterklaas made of chocolate and wrapped in coloured aluminium foil.

Achocolate letter,typical Sinterklaas candy in the Netherlands

Saint Nicholas' Eve and Saint Nicholas' Day

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In the Netherlands, Saint Nicholas' Eve, 5 December, became the chief occasion for gift-giving during the winter holiday season. The evening is calledSinterklaasavond( "Sinterklaas evening" ) orPakjesavond( "gifts evening", or literally "packages evening" ).

On the evening of 5 December, parents, family, friends or acquaintances pretend to act on behalf of "Sinterklaas", or his helpers, and fool the children into thinking that "Sinterklaas" has really given them presents. This may be done through a note that is "found", explaining where the presents are hidden, as though Zwarte Piet visited them and left aburlapsack of presents with them. Sometimes a neighbour will knock on the door (pretending to be a Zwarte Piet) and leave the sack outside for the children to retrieve; this varies per family. When the presents arrive, the living room is decked out with them, much as on Christmas Day in English-speaking countries. On 6 December "Sinterklaas" departs without any ado, and all festivities are over.

In the Southern Netherlands and Belgium, most children have to wait until the morning of 6 December to receive their gifts, and Sinterklaas is seen as a festivity almost exclusively for children. The shoes are filled with a poem or wish list for Sinterklaas and carrots, hay or sugar cubes for the horse on the evening of the fifth and in Belgium often a bottle of beer for Zwarte Piet and a cup of coffee for Sinterklaas are placed next to them. Also in some areas, when it is time for children to give up theirpacifier,they place it into his or her shoe ( "safekeeping by Sinterklaas" ) and it is replaced with chocolate the next morning.

The present is often creatively disguised by being packaged in a humorous, unusual or personalised way. This is called asurprise(from the French).[27][28]

Poems from Sinterklaas usually accompany gifts, bearing a personal message for the receiver. It is usually a humorous poem which often teases the recipient for well-known bad habits or other character deficiencies.

In recent years, influenced by North-American media and the Anglo-Saxon Christmas tradition, when the children reach the age where they get told "the big secret of Sinterklaas", some people will shift to Christmas Eve or Christmas Day for the present giving. Older children in Dutch families where the children are too old to believe in Sinterklaas any more, also often celebrate Christmas with presents instead ofpakjesavond.Instead of such gifts being brought by Sinterklaas, family members ordinarily draw names for an event comparable toSecret Santa.Because of the popularity of his "older cousin" Sinterklaas, Santa Claus is however not commonly seen in the Netherlands and Belgium.

History

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Pre-Christian Europe

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Municipal ban on Sint-Nicolaas pastry in the town ofUtrechtduring 1–8 December 1655 (to combat Catholic idolatry).
The Feast of Saint Nicholas,byJan Steen,1660s

Jacob Grimm,[29]Hélène Adeline Guerberand others have drawn parallels betweenSinterklaasand his helpers and theWild HuntofWodanor Odin,[30]a major god among the Germanic peoples, who was worshipped in Northern and Western Europe prior to Christianization. Riding the white horseSleipnirhe flew through the air as the leader of the Wild Hunt, always accompanied by two black ravens,Huginn and Muninn.[31]Those helpers would listen, just like Zwarte Piet, at the chimney – which was just a hole in the roof at that time – to tell Wodan about the good and bad behaviour of the mortals.[32][unreliable source?][33]Historian Rita Ghesquiere asserts that it is likely that certain pre-christian elements survived in the honouring of Saint Nicholas.[34]Indeed, it seems clear that the tradition contains a number of elements that are notecclesiasticalin origin.[35]

Sinter Claesdepiction at a 16th-century house near theDamin Amsterdam.Saint Nicholasis thepatron saintof the city.

Middle Ages

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TheSinterklaasfeestarose during theMiddle Ages.The feast was both an occasion to help the poor, by putting money in their shoes (which evolved into putting presents in children's shoes) and a wild feast, similar toCarnival,that often led to costumes, a "topsy-turvy" overturning of daily roles, and mass public drunkenness.

In early traditions, students elected one of their classmates as "bishop" on St. Nicholas Day, who would rule until 28 December (Innocents Day), and they sometimes acted out events from the bishop's life. As the festival moved to city streets, it became more lively.[36]

Illustration from the 1850 bookSt. Nikolaas en zijn knecht( "Saint Nicholas and his servant" ), by Jan Schenkman, 1850

16th and 17th centuries

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During theReformationin 16th- and 17th-century Europe, Protestant reformers likeMartin Lutherchanged the Saint gift bringer to the Christ Child orChristkindland moved the date for giving presents from 6 December to Christmas Eve. Certain Protestant municipalities and clerics forbade Saint Nicholas festivities, as the Protestants wanted to abolish the cult of saints and saint adoration, while keeping the midwinter gift-bringing feast alive.[37][38][39]

After the successfulrevoltof the largely Protestant northern provinces of the Low Countries against the rule of Roman Catholic kingPhilip II of Spain,the new Calvinist regents, ministers and clericals prohibited celebration of Saint Nicholas. The newly independentDutch Republicofficially became a Protestant country and abolished public Catholic celebrations. Nevertheless, the Saint Nicholas feast never completely disappeared in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam, where the public Saint Nicholas festivities were very popular, main events like street markets and fairs were kept alive with persons impersonating Nicholas dressed in red clothes instead of a bishop's tabard and mitre. The Dutch government eventually tolerated private family celebrations of Saint Nicholas' Day, as can be seen onJan Steen's paintingThe Feast of Saint Nicholas.

19th century

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In the 19th century, the saint emerged from hiding and the feast became more secularised at the same time.[36]The modern tradition ofSinterklaasas a children's feast was likely confirmed with the illustrated children's bookSint-Nicolaas en zijn knecht('Saint Nicholas and his servant'), written in 1850 by the teacher Jan Schenkman (1806–1863). Some say he introduced the images of Sinterklaas' delivering presents by the chimney, riding over the roofs of houses on agreyhorse, and arriving from Spain bysteamboat,which at that time was an exciting modern invention. Perhaps building on the fact that Saint Nicholas historically is the patron saint of the sailors (many churches dedicated to him have been built near harbours), Schenkman could have been inspired by the Spanish customs and ideas about the saint when he portrayed him arriving via the water in his book. Schenkman introduced the songZie ginds komt de stoomboot( "Look over yonder, the steamboat is arriving" ), which is still popular in the Netherlands.

In Schenkman's version, the medieval figures of the mock devil, which later changed to Oriental or Moorish helpers, was portrayed for the first time as black African and calledZwarte Piet(Black Pete).[36]

World War II

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During theGerman occupation of the Netherlands(1940–1945) many of the traditionalSinterklaasrhymes were rewritten to reflect current events.[40]TheRoyal Air Force(RAF) was often celebrated. In 1941, for instance, the RAF dropped boxes of candy over the occupied Netherlands. One classical poem turned contemporary was the following:

This is a variation of one of the best-known traditional Sinterklaas rhymes, with "RAF" replacing "Sinterklaas" in the first line (the two expressions have the same metrical characteristics in the first and second, and in the third and fourth lines). The Dutch wordkapoentje(little rascal) is traditional to the rhyme, but in this case it also alludes to acapon.The second line is straight from the original rhyme, but in the third and fourth line the RAF is encouraged to drop bombs on theMoffen(slur for Germans, like "krauts" in English) and candy over the Netherlands. Many of theSinterklaaspoems of this time noted the lack of food and basic necessities, and the German occupiers having taken everything of value; others expressed admiration for theDutch Resistance.[41]

OriginallySinterklaaswas only accompanied by one (or sometimes two)Zwarte Pieten,but just after the liberation of the Netherlands, Canadian soldiers organised a Sinterklaas party with many Zwarte Pieten, and ever since this has been the custom, each Piet normally having his own dedicated task.[42]

Popularity and celebration outside the Netherlands

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The festival has also been adhered in the former Dutch colonies. InCuraçao,Dutch-style Sinterklaas events were organised until 2020. The Zwarte Piet costumes were purple, gold, blue, yellow and orange but especially black and dark black.[43]Prime MinisterIvar Asjeshas spoken negatively of the tradition.[44]In 2011, the government ofGerrit Schottethreatened to withdraw the grant for the Dutch tradition after the Curaçaoan activistQuinsy Gariowas arrested, when he protested inDordrechtagainst the use of Zwarte Piet.[45]Since 2020, the Sinterklaas feast is no longer nationally celebrated in Curaçao and has been replaced byChildren's Dayon 20 November.[46]

Dutch-style Sinterklaas events were also organised inSuriname.[47]In 1970 the Surinamese playwrightEugène Drentheenvisioned the character ofGudu Ppa( "Father of Riches" inSranantongo) as a postcolonial replacement of Sinterklaas.[48]Instead of a white man, Gudu Ppa was black. His helpers symbolised Suriname's different ethnic groups, replacing Zwarte Piet. Although promoted by the military regime in the eighties, Gudu Ppa never really caught on.[citation needed]In 2011, opposition member of parliament and former presidentRonald Venetiaancalled for an official ban on Sinterklaas because he considered Zwarte Piet to be a racist element.[49]Since 2013, the Sinterklaas feast on 5 December has been replaced byKinderdag( "Children's Day" ) in Suriname.[50]

The Saint Nicholas Society of New York celebrates a feast on 6 December to this day. In theHudson Valleyregion of New York, Sinterklaas is celebrated annually in the towns ofRhinebeckandKingstonbecause of the region's Dutch heritage. It includes Sinterklaas' crossing the Hudson River and then a parade.[51]

Sinterklaas as a source for Santa Claus

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Sinterklaasis the basis for the North American figure ofSanta Claus.It is often claimed that during theAmerican War of Independence,the inhabitants of New York City, a former Dutch colonial town (New Amsterdam), reinvented theirSinterklaastradition, as Saint Nicholas was a symbol of the city's non-English past.[52]In the 1770s theNew York Gazetteernoted that the feast day of "St. a Claus" was celebrated "by the descendants of the ancient Dutch families, with their usual festivities."[53]In a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam, the scholar Charles Jones did not find references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas.[54]Not all scholars agree with Jones' findings, which he reiterated in a book in 1978.[55]Howard G. Hageman, ofNew Brunswick Theological Seminary,maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York existed in the early settlement of theHudson Valley.He agrees that "there can be no question that by the time the revival of St. Nicholas came withWashington Irving,the traditional New Netherlands observance had completely disappeared. "[56]However, Irving's stories prominently featured legends of the early Dutch settlers, so while the traditional practice may have died out, Irving's St. Nicholas may have been a revival of that dormant Dutch strand of folklore. In his 1812 revisions toA History of New York,Irving inserted a dream sequence featuring St. Nicholas soaring over treetops in a flying wagon – a creation others would later dress up as Santa Claus.

In New York, two years earlierJohn Pintardpublished a pamphlet with illustrations ofAlexander Andersonin which he calls for making Saint Nicholas the patron Saint of New York and starting a Sinterklaas tradition. He was apparently assisted by the Dutch because in his pamphlet he included an old Dutch Sinterklaas poem with an English translation. In the Dutch poem, Saint Nicholas is referred to as 'Sancta Claus'.[25]Ultimately, his initiative helpedSinterklaasto pop up as Santa Claus in the Christmas celebration, which returned – freed of episcopal dignity and ties – via England and later Germany to Europe again.

During theReformationin 16th–17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer from Sinterklaas to the Christ Child orChristkindl(corrupted in English to Kris Kringle). Similarly, the date of giving gifts changed from 5 or 6 December to Christmas Eve.[57]

Sinterklaas in fiction

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See also:Santa Claus in film

In a scene in the 1947 filmMiracle on 34th Street,a Dutch girl recognisesMacy'sdepartment storeSantaas Sinterklaas. They converse in Dutch and sing a Sinterklaas song while she sits on his lap.[58]

Santa Claus is portrayed as Sinterklaas in the 1985 filmOne Magic Christmas:he and his wife have Dutch accents, and she calls him Nicolaas.[59]In lieu ofelves,his helpers are "Christmas angels" who are deceased people of all nationalities.[59]

Sinterklaas has been the subject of a number of Dutch novels, films and television series, primarily aimed at children. Sinterklaas-themed children's films includeWinky's Horse(2005) and the sequelWhere Is Winky's Horse?(2007).[60][61]

Sinterklaas-themed films aimed at adults include thedramaMakkers Staakt uw Wild Geraas(1960), which won aSilver Bearaward at the11th Berlin International Film Festival;theromantic comedyAlles is Liefde(2007) and its BelgianremakeZot van A.(2010); and theDick Maas-directedhorror filmSint(2010).[62]

De Club van Sinterklaasis a Sinterklaas-themed soap opera aimed at children. The popular television series has run since 1999 and has had a number of spin-off series. Since 2001, a Sinterklaas "news" program aimed at children is broadcast daily on Dutch television during the holiday season, theSinterklaasjournaal.The Dutch-BelgianNickelodeonseriesSlot Marsepeinsteinhas aired since 2009.

Much of the first half ofA War of GiftsbyOrson Scott Cardis about the Sinterklaas tradition, including chapter 4 "Sinterklaas Eve" and 5 "Sinterklaas Day".[63]

In the fourth episode of the television seriesThe Librarians( "And Santa's Midnight Ride" ), Santa (Bruce Campbell) is an "immortal avatar" who has existed in many different incarnations throughout history. After experiencingmistletoepoisoning, he briefly turns into Sinterklaas, using his magic to play tricks and make toys appear in people's shoes, before regaining control of his current incarnation.[citation needed]

Sinterklaas also appeared inSesamstraat,the Dutch version ofSesame Street.[citation needed]

[edit]

Other holiday figures based on Saint Nicholas are celebrated in some parts of Germany and Austria (Sankt Nikolaus); the Czech Republic (Mikuláš); Hungary (Mikulás); Switzerland (Samichlaus); Italy (San Nicolain Bari, South Tyrol, Alpine municipalities, and many others); parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia (Sveti Nikola); Slovenia (Sveti NikolajorSveti Miklavž); Greece (Agios Nikolaos); Romania (Moș Nicolae); Albania (Shën Kolli,Nikolli), among others. See further:Saint Nicholas Day.

See also

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References

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  1. ^Clark, Cindy Dell (1 November 1998).Flights of Fancy, Leaps of Faith: Children's Myths in Contemporary America.University of Chicago Press. p. 26.ISBN9780226107783.
  2. ^Ghesquiere 1989,pp. 84–85.
  3. ^"Sinterklaas"Archived3 July 2022 at theWayback Machine,Landelijk Centrum voor Cultuur van Alledag (LECA)
  4. ^"Oh zo Snel |".www.ad.nl.Retrieved22 November2019.
  5. ^"25 jaar geleden kwam de 1e aflevering van" Dag Sinterklaas "op tv",Alexander Verstraete, VRT NWS, 26 November 2017
  6. ^"Sint met paard en koets op Markt",Het Laatste Nieuws,4 December 2014
  7. ^"Sinterklaas gedichten | Kies nu jouw leuke sinterklaasgedicht!".www.1001gedichten.nl.Retrieved28 October2016.
  8. ^E. Boer-Dirks, "Nieuw licht op Zwarte Piet. Een kunsthistorisch antwoord op de vraag naar de herkomst",Volkskundig Bulletin,19 (1993), pp. 1–35; 2–4, 10, 14.
  9. ^Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean,the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800, Robert Davis, 2004
  10. ^nos.nl;Wie is die Zwarte Piet eigenlijk?,23 October 2013
  11. ^Forbes, Bruce David (2007).Christmas: A Candid History.University of California Press.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ^Morse, Felicity."Zwarte Piet: Opposition Grows To 'Racist Black Pete' Dutch Tradition".HuffPost.UK.Retrieved27 October2012.
  13. ^http://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nederland/rtl-stopt-met-zwarte-piet-voortaan-alleen-pieten-met-roetvegenArchived2 January 2018 at theWayback Machine;"RTL stopt met Zwarte Piet, voortaan alleen pieten met roetvegen", 24 October 2016
  14. ^http://nos.nl/artikel/2141314-geen-zwarte-piet-meer-in-amsterdam-alleen-schoorsteenpieten.html;"Geen Zwarte Piet meer in Amsterdam, alleen Schoorsteenpieten", 4 November 2016
  15. ^"VN wil einde Sinterklaasfeest – Binnenland | Het laatste nieuws uit Nederland leest u op Telegraaf.nl [binnenland]".De Telegraaf.22 October 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 20 December 2013.Retrieved19 December2013.
  16. ^"Onderzoek: Zwarte Piet is genoeg aangepast".Een Vandaag.16 November 2018.Retrieved30 November2018.
  17. ^"Onderzoek: Rapportage Zwarte Piet"(PDF).Een Vandaag.15 November 2018. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 February 2019.Retrieved18 February2019.
  18. ^"Niet alleen Rutte is van mening veranderd: de steun voor traditionele Zwarte Piet is gedaald - weblog Gijs Rademaker".Een Vandaag.17 June 2020.Retrieved31 July2020.
  19. ^"Rutte: ik ben anders gaan denken over Zwarte Piet".NOS Nieuws.5 June 2020.Retrieved31 July2020.
  20. ^ab"Most Dutch people are less keen to celebrate Sinterklaas due to Zwarte Piet discussions | NL Times".nltimes.nl.Retrieved13 December2023.
  21. ^Redactie, De (2 December 2016)."Joden en Sinterklaas - joods.nl".Joods.nl: Nieuws uit Joods Nederland en Israel.Retrieved13 December2023.
  22. ^https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/2451573/151509_06_1_.pdf
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  24. ^"Knickerbocker Santa Claus".St. Nicholas Center. 4 December 1953.Retrieved4 December2011.
  25. ^ab"St. Nicholas".www.stnicholascenter.org.Archived fromthe original(JPG)on 8 December 2008.Retrieved27 June2023.
  26. ^"Netherlands".St. Nicholas Center.
  27. ^"Artikel: Sinterklaas Gaming Surprises"(in Dutch). Female-Gamers.nl. 15 November 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 26 April 2012.Retrieved4 December2011.
  28. ^"Examples of typical surprises"(in Dutch). knutselidee.nl.
  29. ^Ghesquiere 1989,p. 72.
  30. ^"Wat heeft Sinterklaas met Germaanse mythologie te maken?"(in Dutch). historianet.nl. 3 December 2011.Retrieved8 December2012.
  31. ^Guerber, Hélène Adeline."huginn and muninn 'Myths of the Norsemen' from".Retrieved26 November2012– via Project Gutenberg.
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  33. ^"Artikel: sinterklaas and Germanic mythology"(in Dutch). historianet.nl. 3 December 2011.Retrieved8 December2012.
  34. ^Ghesquiere 1989,p. 77.
  35. ^Meertens Instituut,Piet en Sint – veelgestelde vragen,meertens.knaw.nl.Retrieved 19 November 2013; J. de Jager,Rituelen & Tradities: Sinterklaas,jefdejager.nl.Retrieved 19 November 2013. According to E. Boer-Dirks, "Nieuw licht op Zwarte Piet. Een kunsthistorisch antwoord op de vraag naar de herkomst",Volkskundig Bulletin,19 (1993), pp. 1–35, this tradition is derived from German folkloristic research of the first decades of the 19th century (p. 2). This happened relatively early; already in 1863, the Dutch lexicographer Eelco Verwijs is found comparing the feast of St. Nicholas with Germanic pagan traditions and noting that the appearance of Wodan and Eckart in December reminds him of that of St. Nicholas and "his servant Ruprecht" (De christelijke feesten: Eene bijdrage tot de kennis der germaansche mythologie. I. Sinterklaas(The Hague, 1863), p. 40). An older reference to a possible pagan origin of a "St. Nicholas and his black servant with chains", apparently in a Dutch setting, is found in L. Ph. C. van den Bergh,Nederlandsche volksoverleveringen en godenleer(Utrecht, 1836), p. 74 ( "...de verschijning van den zwarten knecht van St. Nikolaas met kettingen, die de kinders verschrikt,... acht ik van heidenschen oorsprong" ).
  36. ^abcHauptfleisch, Temple;Lev-Aladgem, Shulamith; Martin, Jacqueline; Sauter, Willmar; Schoenmakers, Henri (2007).Festivalising!: Theatrical Events, Politics and Culture.Amsterdam and New York: International Federation for Theatre Research. p. 291.ISBN978-9042022218.
  37. ^Forbes, Bruce David,Christmas: a candid history,University of California Press, 2007,ISBN0-520-25104-0,pp. 68–79.
  38. ^Köhler, Erika.Martin Luther und der Festbrauch, Cologne, 1959.OCLC613003275.
  39. ^"Martin Luther soll das Christkind erfunden haben".Stiftung Luthergedenkstätten in Sachsen-Anhalt – Staatliche Geschäftsstelle "Luther 2017". Archived fromthe originalon 26 December 2017.Retrieved5 March2018.
  40. ^Some of these were collected, published in 2009 by Hinke Piersma, a researcher at theDutch Institute for War Documentation.
  41. ^Budde, Sjoukje (4 December 2008)."Hitler heeft den strijd gestart, maar aan 't eind krijgt hij de gard".De Volkskrant.Amsterdam.Retrieved5 December2008.
  42. ^Sijs, Nicoline van der (2009)Cookies, Coleslaw, and Stoops.Amsterdam:Amsterdam University Press.p. 254.
  43. ^"In Willemstad is piet vooral donker zwart en sint wit geschminkt".Volkskrant.n. 18 November 2017.
  44. ^"Zwarte en gekleurde Pieten op Curaçao".Nu.nl. 16 November 2013.
  45. ^"Op Curaçao hebben ze al regenboogpieten".Algemeen Dagblad.
  46. ^"Geen sinterklaasviering meer op Curaçao".NOS.20 September 2020.
  47. ^"Surinaamse Sint ruilt Piet in voor suikerfee".Trouw.2 December 2014.
  48. ^"Leidse Courant – 19 november 1980 – pagina 15".Historische Kranten, Erfgoed Leiden en Omstreken.19 November 1980.
  49. ^"Starnieuws - NDP ondersteunt Venetiaan met afschaffing Sinterklaas".www.starnieuws.com.
  50. ^"Sint en Piet niet meer op Surinaamse scholen".Trouw.6 December 2013.
  51. ^"Sinterklaas!".Sinterklaashudsonvalley.com.Retrieved19 November2021.
  52. ^Lendering, Jona (20 November 2008)."Saint Nicholas, Sinterklaas, Santa Claus".Livius.org.Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2011.Retrieved4 December2011.
  53. ^Shorto, Russell.The Island at the Center of the World.Random House LLC, 2005.
  54. ^Jones, Charles W. "Knickerbocker Santa Claus".The New-York Historical Society Quarterly.Vol. XXXVIII, no. 4.
  55. ^Charles W. Jones,Saint Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: Biography of a Legend(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1978)
  56. ^Hageman, Howard G. (1979)."Review ofSaint Nicholas of Myra, Bari, and Manhattan: Biography of a Legend".Theology Today.Vol. 36, no. 3. Princeton:Princeton Theological Seminary.Archived fromthe originalon 7 December 2008.Retrieved5 December2008.
  57. ^Forbes, Bruce David (2007).Christmas: A Candid History.University of California Press.pp.68–79.ISBN978-0-520-25104-5.
  58. ^Miracle on 34th Street(DVD). Los Angeles, California:20th Century Fox.2 May 1947. Event occurs at 23:40.
  59. ^abOne Magic Christmas(DVD). Burbank, California:Buena Vista Distribution.22 November 1985. Event occurs at TBD.
  60. ^Winky's HorseatIMDb
  61. ^Where Is Winky's HorseatIMDb
  62. ^Guido Franken,"Sinterklaas in de Nederlandse film",Neerlands Filmdoek, 29 November 2013 (Dutch)
  63. ^Card, Orson Scott (November 2007).A War of Gifts: An Ender Story.Tor / Tom Doherty Associates.pp.47–81.ISBN978-0-7653-1282-2.

Notes

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  1. ^Those includeSanikolasinPapiamento;Saint Nicolasin French;SinteklaasinWest Frisian;SinterklaosinLimburgs;SunterklaosorSünnerklaasinLow Saxon;SintekloaiinWest Flemish;KleeschenandZinniklosinLuxembourgish;Sankt NikolausorNikolausin German; andSint NicholasinAfrikaans.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Ghesquiere, Rita (1989).Van Nicolaas van Myra tot Sinterklaas.Acco.ISBN9789061525561.
[edit]
Look upsinterklaasliedin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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