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Korean conflict

Coordinates:38°19′N127°14′E/ 38.317°N 127.233°E/38.317; 127.233
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For the 1950–1953 war between North and South Korea and their supporters, seeKorean War.

Korean conflict
Part of theCold WarinAsia(until 1991)

TheKorean DMZ,viewed from thenorth
Date9 September 1948 – present
(75 years, 9 months and 26 days)
Location
Korean Peninsula
38°19′N127°14′E/ 38.317°N 127.233°E/38.317; 127.233
Status
Territorial
changes
  • Korea was dividedat the38th parallelin 1945 with the separation of the sovereign states ofNorth KoreaandSouth Koreain 1948
  • Establishment of theMilitary Demarcation Lineas the border from 1953 to present.
  • Korean Demilitarized Zoneestablished in 1953
    • Belligerents
    South Korea North Korea
    Commanders and leaders

    Yoon Suk-yeol
    (2022–present)

    Former

    Kim Jong Un
    (2011–present)

    Former
    SeeKorean Warfor details of belligerents during the war.

    TheKorean conflictis anongoing conflictbased on the division ofKoreabetweenNorth Korea(Democratic People's Republic of Korea) andSouth Korea(Republic of Korea), both of which claim to be the solelegitimate governmentof all of Korea. During theCold War,North Korea was backed by theSoviet Union,China,andother allies,while South Korea was backed by theUnited States,United Kingdom,andother Western allies.

    Thedivision of Koreaby the United States and the Soviet Union occurred in 1945 after the defeat of Japan endedJapanese rule of Korea,and both superpowers created separate governments in 1948. Tensions erupted into theKorean War,which lasted from 1950 to 1953. When the war ended, both countries were devastated, but the division remained. North and South Korea continued a military standoff, with periodic clashes. The conflict survived the end of the Cold War and is still ongoing. It is now considered one of the 10frozen conflictsof the world and is considered one of the oldest, along with theSino-Taiwanese conflict.

    The U.S. maintains a military presence in the South to assist South Korea in accordance with theROK–U.S. Mutual Defense Treaty.In 1997, U.S. PresidentBill Clintondescribed the division of Korea as the "Cold War's last divide".[1]In 2002, U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bushdescribed North Korea as a member of an "axis of evil".[2][3]Facing increasing isolation, North Korea developedmissile and nuclear capabilities.

    Following heightened tension throughout 2017, and some parts of 2018, 2018 saw North Korea, South Korea and the U.S. holding aseries of summits,which promised peace and nuclear disarmament. This led to thePanmunjom Declarationon 27 April 2018, when the North and the South agreed to work together todenuclearizethe peninsula, improve inter-Korean relations, end the conflict officially, and move towards thepeaceful reunification.In subsequent years, diplomatic efforts faltered and military confrontation returned to the fore.

    The Korean border remains the most militarized private area in the world with the presence of theKorean People's Armyin north; theForces of the Republic of Koreaand theUnited States Forces Korea(highlighted notably through theCombined Forces) in south and the presence of theforces of United Nationsin theKorean Demilitarized Zone(JSAandCamp Bonifas).

    Background[edit]

    See also:Korean EmpireandKorea under Japanese rule

    Korea wasannexedby theEmpire of Japanon August 22, 1910, and ruled by it until September 2, 1945. During the Japanese occupation of Korea, nationalist and radical groups emerged, mostly in exile, to struggle forindependence.Divergent in their outlooks and approaches, these groups failed to unite into a single national movement.[4][5]Based in China, theKorean Provisional Governmentfailed to obtain widespread recognition.[6]The many leaders advocating for Korean independence included the conservative and U.S.-educatedSyngman Rhee,who lobbied the U.S. government, and the CommunistKim Il Sung,who fought a guerrilla war against the Japanese from neighboringManchuria.[7]

    Following theend of the occupation,many high-ranking Koreanswere accused of collaboratingwithJapanese imperialism.[8]An intense and bloody struggle between various figures and political groups aspiring to lead Korea ensued.[9]

    Division of Korea (1945–1949)[edit]

    Main article:Division of Korea
    See also:United States Army Military Government in KoreaandSoviet Civil Administration

    On August 9, 1945, as agreed by theAlliesat thePotsdam Conference,the Soviet Uniondeclared war on Japanand advanced into Korea. The U.S. government requested that the Soviet advance stop at the38th parallel.The U.S. forces were to occupy the area south of the 38th parallel, including the capital,Seoul.This division of Korea into two zones of occupation was incorporated intoGeneral Order No. 1,which was given to Japanese forces after thesurrender of Japanon August 15, 1945. On August 24, 1945, theRed ArmyenteredPyongyangand established amilitary governmentover Korea north of the parallel. American forces landed in the south on September 8, 1945, and established theU.S. Army Military Government in Korea.[10]

    U.S. Military Advisory Group Headquarters, South Korea,c. 1950

    The Allies had originally envisaged a joint trusteeship which would steer Korea towards independence, but most Korean nationalists wanted independence immediately.[11]Meanwhile, the wartime co-operation between the Soviet Union and the U.S. deteriorated as theCold Wartook hold. Both occupying powers began promoting into positions of authority Koreans aligned with their side of politics and marginalizing their opponents. Many of these emerging political leaders were returning exiles with little popular support.[12][13]In North Korea, the Soviet Union supported Korean communists. Kim Il Sung, who from 1941 had served in the Soviet Army, became the major political figure.[14]Society wascentralizedandcollectivized,following the Soviet model.[15]Politics in the South were more tumultuous, but the strongly anti-communist Syngman Rhee, who had been educated in the U.S., was positioned as the most prominent politician.[16]

    In South Korea, ageneral electionwas held on May 10, 1948. TheRepublic of Korea(or ROK) was established with Syngman Rhee as president, and formally replaced the U.S. military occupation on 15 August. In North Korea, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) was declared on September 8, withKim Il Sung,as prime minister. Soviet occupation forces left the DPRK on December 10, 1948. U.S. forces left the ROK the following year, though the U.S.Korean Military Advisory Groupremained to train theRepublic of Korea Army.[17]The new regimes even adopted differentnames for Korea:the North choosingChoson,and the SouthHanguk.[18]

    Both opposing governments considered themselves to be the government of the whole of Korean Peninsula (as the South does to this day), and both saw the division as temporary.[19][20]Kim Il Sung lobbiedStalinandMaofor support in a war of reunification, while Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North.[21][22]In 1948,North Korea,which had almost all the generators, turned off the electricity supply to the South.[23]In the lead-up to the outbreak of civil war, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially atKaesongandOngjin,initiated by both sides.[24][25]

    Throughout this period there were uprisings in the South, such as theJeju Uprisingand theYeosu–Suncheon Rebellion,that were brutally suppressed. In all, over one hundred thousand people died in fighting across Korea before the Korean War began.[26]

    Korean War (1950–1953)[edit]

    Main article:Korean War
    TheKorean War Memorialin Pyongyang, North Korea, with the pyramidalRyugyong Hotelin the background

    By 1950, North Korea had clear military superiority over the South. The Soviet occupiers had armed it with surplus weaponry and provided training. Many troops returning to North Korea were battle-hardened from their participation in theChinese Civil War,which had just ended.[27][28]Kim Il Sung expected a quick victory, predicting that there would be pro-communist uprisings in the South and that the U.S. would not intervene.[29]Rather than perceiving the conflict as a civil war, however, the West saw it in Cold War terms as communist aggression, related to recent events in China and Eastern Europe.[30]

    U.S. planes bombingWonsan,North Korea, 1951

    North Korea invaded the South on June 25, 1950, and swiftly overran most of the country. In September 1950United Nations Command,led by the U.S., intervened to defend the South, and following theIncheon Landingandbreakout from the Pusan Perimeter,rapidly advanced into North Korea. As theUNforce neared the border with China, Chinese forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war again. Fighting ended on July 27, 1953, with anarmisticethat approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea.[22]

    Korea was devastated. Around three million civilians and soldiers had been killed. Seoul was in ruins, having changed hands four times. Several million North Korean refugees fled to the South.[31]Almost every substantial building in North Korea had been destroyed.[32][33]As a result, North Koreans developed a deep-seated antagonism towards the U.S.[31]

    Armistice (July 27, 1953)[edit]

    Main article:Korean Armistice Agreement

    Negotiations for an armistice began on July 10, 1951, as the war continued. The main issues were the establishment of a new demarcation line and the exchange of prisoners. AfterStalindied, the Soviet Union brokered concessions which led to an agreement on July 27, 1953.[34]

    President Syngman Rhee opposed the armistice because it left Korea divided. As negotiations drew to a close, he attempted to sabotage the arrangements for the release of prisoners, and led mass rallies against the armistice.[35]He refused to sign the agreement but reluctantly agreed to abide by it.[36]

    The armistice inaugurated an official ceasefire but did not lead to apeace treatyfor two Koreas.[37]It established theKorean Demilitarized Zone(DMZ), a buffer zone between the two sides, that intersected the 38th parallel but did not follow it.[36]Despite its name, the border was, and continues to be, one of the most militarized in the world.[31]

    North Korea announced that it would no longer abide by the armistice at least six times, in the years 1994, 1996, 2003, 2006, 2009, and 2013.[38][39]

    Cold War period (1953–1991)[edit]

    After the war, the Chinese forces left, butU.S. forces remained in the South.Sporadic conflict continued. The North's occupation of the South left behind a guerrilla movement that persisted in the Cholla provinces.[31]On October 1, 1953, the United States and South Korea signed adefense treaty.[40]In 1958, the United States stationed nuclear weapons in South Korea.[41]In 1961, North Korea signed mutual defense treaties with the USSR and China.[42]In theSino-North Korean Mutual Aid and Cooperation Friendship Treaty,China pledged to render immediate military and other assistance by all means to North Korea against any outside attack.[43]During this period, North Korea was described by former CIA directorRobert Gatesto be the "toughest intelligence target in the world".[44]Alongside the military confrontation, there was a propaganda war, includingballoon propaganda campaigns.[45]

    The opposing regimes aligned themselves with opposing sides in the Cold War. Both sides received recognition as the legitimate government of Korea from the opposing blocs.[46][47]South Korea became a strongly anti-Communist military dictatorship.[48]North Korea presented itself as a champion of orthodox Communism, distinct from the Soviet Union and China. The regime developed the doctrine ofJucheor self-reliance, which included extreme military mobilization.[49]In response to the threat of nuclear war, it constructed extensive facilities underground and in the mountains.[50][23]ThePyongyang Metroopened in the 1970s, with the capacity to double as bomb shelter.[51]Until the early 1970s, North Korea was an economic equal of the South.[52]

    South Koreawas heavily involved in the Vietnam War.[53]Hundreds of North Korean fighter pilots went to Vietnam, shooting down 26 U.S. aircraft. Teams of North Korean psychological warfare specialists targeted South Korean troops, and Vietnamese guerrillas were trained in the North.[54]

    The captured USSPueblobeing visited by tourists in Pyongyang

    Tensions between North and South escalated in the late 1960s with a series of low-level armed clashes known as theKorean DMZ Conflict.In 1966, Kim declared "liberation of the south" to be a "national duty".[55]In 1968, North Korean commandos launched theBlue House raid,an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the South Korean PresidentPark Chung Hee.Shortly after, the American spy shipUSSPueblowas captured by the North Korean navy.[56]The Americans saw the crisis in terms of the global confrontation with Communism, but, rather than orchestrating the incident, the Soviet government was concerned by it.[57]The crisis was initiated by Kim, inspired by Communist successes in the Vietnam War.[58]

    In 1967, Korean-born composerIsang Yunwas kidnapped in West Germany by South Korean agents and imprisoned in South Korea on the charge of spying for the North. He was released after an international outcry.[59]

    In 1969, North Koreashot down a U.S. EC-121 spy planeover theSea of Japan,killing all 31 crew on board, which constituted the largest single loss of U.S. aircrew during the Cold War.[60]In 1969,Korean Air Lines YS-11 was hijackedand flown to North Korea. Similarly, in 1970, the hijackers ofJapan Airlines Flight 351were given asylum in North Korea.[61]In response to the Blue House raid, the South Korean government set upa special unitto assassinate Kim Il Sung, but the mission was aborted in 1972.[62] In the 1970s, South Korea pursued its own nuclear weapons, but was discouraged by the US.[63]

    Just after the 1976Korean axe murder incident,anti-North Korean sentiment spiked in South Korea. In this image, South Koreans burn a papereffigyof North Korean leaderKim Il Sungin Seoul (1976)[64][65]

    In 1974, aNorth Korean sympathizerattempted to assassinate President Park and killed his wife,Yuk Young-soo.[66]In 1976, thePanmunjeom Axe incidentled to the death of two U.S. Army officers in the DMZ and threatened to trigger a wider war.[67][68]In the 1970s, North Koreakidnapped a number of Japanese citizens.[61]

    In 1976, in now-declassified minutes, U.S. Deputy Secretary of DefenseWilliam ClementstoldHenry Kissingerthat there had been 200 raids or incursions into North Korea from the South, though not by the U.S. military.[69]According to South Korean politicians who have campaigned for compensation for the survivors, more than 7,700 secret agents infiltrated North Korea from 1953 to 1972, of which about 5,300 are believed not to have returned.[70]Details of only a few of these incursions have become public, including raids by South Korean forces in 1967 that had sabotaged about 50 North Korean facilities.[71]Other missions included targeting advisers from China and the Soviet Union in order to undermine relations between North Korea and its allies.[72]

    The East German leader,Erich Honecker,who visited in 1977, was one of Kim Il Sung's closest foreign friends.[73]In 1986, East Germany and North Korea signed an agreement on military co-operation.[74]Kim was also close to maverick Communist leaders,Josip Broz Titoof Yugoslavia, andNicolae Ceaușescuof Romania.[75]Libyan LeaderMuammar Gaddafimet with Kim Il Sung and was a close ally of the DPRK.[76][77]North Korea began to play a part in the global radical movement, forging ties with such diverse groups as theBlack Panther Partyof the U.S.,[78]theWorkers' Party of Ireland,[79]and theAfrican National Congress.[80]As it increasingly emphasized its independence, North Korea began to promote the doctrine ofJucheas an alternative to orthodoxMarxism-Leninismand as a model for developing countries to follow.[81]

    When North-South dialogue started in 1972, North Korea began to receive diplomatic recognition from countries outside the Communist bloc. Within four years, North Korea was recognized by 93 countries, on par with South Korea's recognition by 96 countries. North Korea gained entry into theWorld Health Organizationand, as a result, sent its first permanent observer missions to the UN.[82]In 1975, it joined theNon-Aligned Movement.[83]

    During the 1970s, both North and South began building up their military capacity.[84]It was discovered that North Korea had dug tunnels under the DMZ which could accommodate thousands of troops.[85]Alarmed at the prospect of U.S. disengagement, South Korea began asecret nuclear weapons programwhich was strongly opposed by Washington.[86]

    In 1977, U.S. PresidentJimmy Carterproposed the withdrawal of troops from South Korea. There was a widespread backlash in America and in South Korea, and critics argued that this would allow the North to capture Seoul. Carter postponed the move, and his successorRonald Reaganreversed the policy, increasing troop numbers to forty-three thousand.[87]After Reagan supplied the South withF-16fighters, and after Kim Il Sung visited Moscow in 1984, the USSR recommenced military aid and co-operation with the North.[88]

    Unrest in South Korea came to a head with theGwangju Uprisingin 1980. The dictatorship equated dissent with North Korean subversion. On the other hand, some young protesters viewed the U.S. as complicit in political repression and identified with the North's nationalist propaganda.[89][90]

    In 1983, North Korea carried out theRangoon bombing,a failed assassination attempt against South Korean PresidentChun Doo-hwanwhile he was visiting Burma.[91]The bombing ofKorean Air Flight 858in 1987, in the lead-up to theSeoul Olympics,led to the U.S. government placing North Korea on its list of terrorist countries.[92][93]North Korea launched a boycott of the Games, supported byCuba,Ethiopia,Albaniaand theSeychelles.[94]

    In 1986, former South Korean foreign ministerChoe Deok-sindefected to North Korea, becoming a leader of theChondoist Chongu Party.[95]

    In the 1980s, the South Korean government built a 98-metre (322 ft)-tall flagpole in the village ofDaeseong-dongin the DMZ. In response, North Korea built a 160-metre (520 ft)-tall flagpole in the nearby village ofKijŏng-dong.[45]

    Isolation and confrontation (1991–2017)[edit]

    Vessels of U.S. Carrier Strike Group Three sail in formation with ROK Navy ships during Key Resolve/Foal Eagle 2009

    As the Cold War ended, North Korea lost the support of the Soviet Union and plunged into aneconomic crisis.With the death of leader Kim Il Sung in 1994,[96]there were expectations that the North Korean government could collapse and the peninsula would be reunified.[97][98]US nuclear weapons were removed from South Korea.[63]

    In 1994, suspecting that North Korea was developing nuclear weapons, U.S. PresidentBill Clintonconsidered bombing North Korea'sYongbyon nuclear reactor,but he later dismissed this option when he was advised that if war broke out, it could cost 52,000 U.S. and 490,000 South Korean military casualties in the first three months, as well as a large number of civilian casualties.[99][100]Instead, in 1994, the U.S. and North Korea signed anAgreed Framework,which aimed to freeze North Korea's nuclear program. In 1998, South Korean PresidentKim Dae-junginitiated theSunshine Policy,which aimed to foster better relations with the North.[101]However, in the aftermath of theSeptember 11 attacks,U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bushdenounced the policy, and in 2002 branded North Korea a member of an "Axis of Evil".[2][3]Six-party talksinvolving North and South Korea, the United States, Russia, Japan, and China commenced in 2003 but failed to achieve a resolution. In 2006, North Korea announced it had successfully conducted itsfirst nuclear test.[102]The Sunshine Policy was formally abandoned by South Korean PresidentLee Myung-bakafter his election in 2007.[103]

    In the start of the 21st century, it was estimated that the concentration of firepower in the area between Pyongyang and Seoul was greater than that in central Europe during the Cold War.[104]The North'sKorean People's Armywas numerically twice the size of South Korea's military and had the capacity to devastate Seoul with artillery and missile bombardment. South Korea's military, however, was assessed as being technically superior in many ways.[105][106]U.S. forces remained in South Korea and carried out annual military exercises with South Korean forces, includingKey Resolve,Foal Eagle,andUlchi-Freedom Guardian.These were routinely denounced by North Korea as acts of aggression.[107][108][109]Between 1997 and 2016, the North Korea government accused other governments of declaring war against it 200 times.[110]Analysts have described the U.S. garrison as a tripwire ensuring American military involvement, but some have queried whether sufficient reinforcements would be forthcoming.[111]

    During this period, two North Korean submarines were captured after being stranded on the South Korean coast,one near Gangneung in 1996andone near Sokcho in 1998.In December 1998, the South Korean navy sank a North Koreansemi-submersiblein theBattle of Yeosu.In 2001, the Japanese Coast Guard sank a North Korean spy ship in theBattle of Amami-Ōshima.

    South Korea ceased sending "North Korea Demolition Agents" to raid the North in the early 2000s.[72][112]

    Yeonpyeong Island under North Korean attack

    Conflict intensified near the disputed maritime boundary known as theNorthern Limit Linein theYellow Sea.In 1999 and 2002, there were clashes between the navies of North and South Korea, known as theFirstandSecond battle of Yeonpyeong.On 26 March 2010, a South Korean naval vessel, theROKS Cheonan, sank,nearBaengnyeong Islandin the Yellow Sea and a North Korean torpedo was blamed. On 23 November 2010, in response to a joint military exercise,North Korea fired artilleryat South Korea's Greater Yeonpyeong island in the Yellow Sea, and South Korea returned fire.

    In 2013, amidst tensions about its missile program, North Korea forced the temporary shutdown of the jointly operatedKaesong Industrial Region.[113]The zone was shut again in 2016.[114]A South Korean parliamentarian was convicted ofplotting a campaign of sabotage to support the North in 2013and jailed for 12 years.[115]In 2014, according to theNew York Times,U.S. PresidentBarack Obamaordered the intensification ofcyberandelectronic warfareto disrupt North Korea's missile testing,[116]but this account has been disputed by analysts from theNautilus Institute.[117]

    In 2016, in the face of protests, South Korea decided to deploy the U.S.THAADanti-missile system in response to nuclear and missile threats by North Korea.[118][119]After North Korea'sfifth nuclear testin September 2016, it was reported that South Korea had developed a plan to raze Pyongyang if there were signs of an impending nuclear attack from the North.[120]A North Koreannumbers stationstarted broadcasting again, after a break of 16 years, apparently sending coded messages to agents in the South.[45]AsSouth Korea was convulsed by scandal,North Korea enthusiastically supported the removal of PresidentPark Geun-hye,intensifying leaflet drops.[121]In turn, Park's supporters accused the oppositionLiberty Korea Partyof basing its logo on Pyongyang'sJuche Tower.[122]

    In March 2017, it was reported that the South Korean government had increased the rewards toNorth Korean defectorswho brought classified information or military equipment with them.[123]It was also reported that, in 2016, North Korea hackers had stolen classified South Korean military data, including a plan for the killing of Kim Jong Un. According to cybersecurity experts, North Korea maintained an army of hackers trained to disrupt enemy computer networks and steal both money and sensitive data. In the previous decade, it was blamed for numerouscyber-attacksand other hacking attacks in South Korea and elsewhere,[124]including thehack of Sony Picturessupposedly in retaliation for the release of the 2014 filmThe Interview,which depicts the assassination of Kim Jong Un.[125]

    Tension and détente (2017–2021)[edit]

    Main articles:2017–2018 North Korea crisis,April 2018 inter-Korean summit,2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit,andSeptember 2018 inter-Korean summit
    Kim Jong UnandMoon Jae-inshake hands at the Korean DMZ during thefirst 2018 inter-Korean summit

    The year 2017 saw a period of heightened tension between the U.S. and North Korea. Early in the year, the incoming U.S. PresidentDonald Trumpabandoned the policy of "strategic patience" associated with the precedingObama administration.Later in the year,Moon Jae-inwas elected President of South Korea with a promise to return to the Sunshine Policy.[126]On July 4, 2017, North Korea successfully conducted its first test of anintercontinental ballistic missile(ICBM), namedHwasong-14.[127]It conducted another test on 28 July.[128]On 5 August 2017, the UN imposed further sanctions which were met with defiance from the North Korean government.[129]

    Kim Jong-un and Donald Trump shake hands at the Singapore Summit

    Following the sanctions, Trump warned that North Korean nuclear threats "will be met with fire, fury and frankly power, the likes of which the world has never seen before". In response, North Korea announced that it was considering a missile test in which the missiles would land near the U.S. territory ofGuam.[130][131]North Korea conducted itssixth nuclear teston September 3.[132]The test was met with international condemnation and resulted in furthereconomic sanctionsbeing taken against North Korea.[133]On November 28, North Korea launched a further missile, which, according to analysts, would be capable of reaching anywhere in the United States.[134]The test resulted in the United Nations placingfurther sanctionson the country.[135]

    In January 2018, theVancouver Foreign Ministers' Meeting on Security and Stability on Korean Peninsulawas co-hosted by Canada and the U.S., regarding ways to increase the effectiveness of the sanctions on North Korea.[136]The co-chairs (Canadian Foreign MinisterFreelandand U.S. Secretary of StateTillerson) issued a summary that emphasized the urgency of persuading North Korea to denuclearize and emphasizing the need for sanctions to create conditions for a diplomatic solution.[137]

    When Kim Jong Un proposed participating in the2018 Winter Olympics in South Koreain his New Year's address, theSeoul–Pyongyang hotlinewas reopened after almost two years.[138]In February, North Korea sent an unprecedented high-level delegation to the Games, headed byKim Yo-jong,sister ofKim Jong Un,and PresidentKim Yong-nam,which passed on an invitation to President Moon to visit the North.[139]Kim Jong Un and Moon met at theJoint Security Areaon April 27, where they announced that their governments would work toward a denuclearized Korean Peninsula and formalize peace between North and South Korea.[140]On June 12, Kim met with Donald Trump at asummit in Singaporeand signed a declaration, affirming the same commitment.[141]Trump announced that he would halt military exercises with South Korea and foreshadowed withdrawing American troops entirely.[142]

    In September 2018, at asummit with Moon in Pyongyang,Kim agreed to dismantle North Korea's nuclear weapons facilities if the United States took reciprocal action. The two governments also announced that they would establish buffer zones on their borders to prevent clashes.[143]On November 1, buffer zones were established across the DMZ to help ensure the end of hostility on land, sea and air.[144]The buffer zones stretched from the north of Deokjeok Island to the south of Cho Island in the West Sea and the north of Sokcho city and south of Tongchon County in the East (Yellow) Sea.[144][145]In addition,no fly zoneswere established along the DMZ.[144][145]

    In February 2019 in Hanoi, asecond summitbetween Kim and Trump broke down without an agreement.[146]On June 30, 2019, President Trumpmetwith Kim Jong Un along with Moon Jae-in at the DMZ, making him the first sitting U.S. president to enter North Korea.[147]Talks in Stockholm began on 5 October 2019 between U.S. and North Korean negotiating teams, but broke down after one day.[148]On June 16, 2020, at approximately 2:49 p.m., the North Korean regime of Kim Jong-un blew up the North-South Joint Liaison Office in the Kaesong Industrial Complex.[149]In late 2021, President Moon, nearing the end of his five-year term, convened a forum, "Declaration of the End of the War: The Limitations and Prospects" continuing to seek a diplomatic breakthrough; but this was opposed by some speakers, including representatives of thePeople Power Party.[150]

    The end of détente (2021–present)[edit]

    The Arch of Reunification, demolished 2024

    On September 9, 2022, North Korea passed a law to declare itself a nuclear weapons state.[151]In November 2022, a U.S.-South Korean air force exercise called Vigilant Storm was countered by missile tests and an air force exercise by North Korea.[152]In December 2022, five North Korean drones entered South Korean airspace, eluding South Korean defences, one entering the no-fly zone around the Blue House.[153]In late 2022, the South Korean National Intelligence Service began a series of raids targeting alleged North Korean spy-cells.[154]

    As of 2023, North Korean publications remained censored in South Korea.[155]Meanwhile, North Korea campaigned against foreign culture, while the US government sponsored the flow of outside information into North Korea.[156]

    On January 5, 2024, North Korea fired 200 shells towardsYeonpyeong Island.[157]

    In 10 January 2024, during a speech at the 9th plenum of the8th Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea,Kim called for a "fundamental turnabout" in North Korea's stance towards South Korea, calling the South the "enemy".[158]He stated "the party’s comprehensive conclusion after reviewing decades-long inter-Korean relations is that reunification can never be achieved with those ROK riffraffs that defined the 'unification by absorption' and 'unification under liberal democracy' as their state policy", which he said is in "sharp contradiction with what our line of national reunification was: one nation, one state with two systems".[159]

    Kim citedSouth Korean constitution's claims over the entire Korean Peninsula and South Korean PresidentYoon Suk Yeol's policy towards the north as evidence that South Korea is an unsuitable partner for reunification.[158]He said the relations between the two Koreas currently were "states hostile to each other and the relations between two belligerent states" and no longer ones that are "consanguineous or homogeneous",[160]continuing by saying it is "unsuitable" to discuss the issue of reunification "with this strange clan [South Korea], who is no more than a colonial stooge of the U.S. despite the rhetorical word [we used to use] — 'the fellow countrymen'".[159]

    Kim further confirmed a shift in policy in January 2024, when he gave a speech to theSupreme People's Assembly(SPA) calling for theconstitutionto be amended to remove references to cooperation and reunification, as well as specify DPRK's territorial borders and add an article specifying the ROK as the most hostile country.[161]He also rejected the maritime Northern Limit Line, saying that "If the Republic of Korea invades our ground territory, territorial air space, or territorial waters by even 0.001 mm, it will be considered a provocation of war". The SPA also voted on the abolition of three inter-Korean cooperation organizations; theCommittee for the Peaceful Reunification of the Fatherland,theKorean People’s Cooperation Administration,and theKumgangsan International Tourism Administration.[161]

    One of the symbols of this was the destruction of theArch of Reunificationin Pyongyang in January 23, 2024. North Korea appears to have demolished this large monument that symbolized the hope of unification with South Korea, according to analysis of satellite images.[162]Kim Jong-Un said at the 10th session of the 14th Supreme People’s Assembly of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea: "We should also take steps such as the demolition of the" Monument to the Three Charters of National Reunification "which stands unceremoniously at the southern entrance to the capital, Pyongyang, in order to completely eliminate the very concepts of" reunification "," reconciliation "and" fratricidal "national history of the DPRK."[163]On February 19, 2024, North Korea has erased an image of the Korean Peninsula, viewed as a unification reference, from its major websites.[164]

    On March 1, 2024, the government of President Yoon Suk Yeol plans to develop a new vision of unification with North Korea to include the principle of liberal democracy. South Korea plans to update its vision of unification for the first time in 30 years. This is the first revision of theUnification Formula of the national community,South Korea’s unification policy unveiled in August 1994 under the administration of late PresidentKim Young-sam.[165]

    On June 4, 2024, South Korea's State Council suspended the 2018 Panmunjom Declaration due to border tensions over balloons carrying trash sent by North Korea.[166]On 9 June 2024, South Korea announced the resumption of loudspeaker broadcasts of anti-North Korean propaganda after the balloons were sent. Seoul's military detected around 330 balloons since 8 June 2024, with about 80 found in South Korean territory. The president's office stated that the broadcasts aimed to deliver messages of hope to the North Korean military and citizens. This response followed weeks of activists in the South launching balloons carrying K-pop, dollar bills, and anti-Kim Jong-un propaganda, which had infuriated Pyongyang. The loudspeaker broadcasts resumed after South Korea suspended a 2018 tension-easing agreement, allowing for propaganda campaigns and potential military exercises near the border[167]

    See also[edit]

    References[edit]

    1. ^Hyung Gu Lynn (2007).Bipolar Orders: The Two Koreas since 1989.Zed Books. p.3.
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    Further reading[edit]

    External links[edit]

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