Hephthalites

Hephthalites ηβοδαλο Ebodalo
Empire: 440s–560 Principalities inTokharistanand theHindu-Kushuntil 710.
Tamgaof the Imperial Hephthalites, known as "Tamgha S2".
SASANIAN EMPIRE HEPHTHALITES ALCHON HUNS NEZAK HUNS Yueban Magyars Oghurs TOCHARIANS GUPTA EMPIRE ZHANGZHUNG VAKATAKAS ROURAN KHAGANATE Gaoju Turks ◁▷ Territory of the Hepthalite Empire, circa 500
Status	Nomadic empire
Capital	Kunduz(Walwalij,Drapsaka,orBadian) Balkh(Pakhlo)
Common languages	Bactrian(official) Sogdian(Sogdiana) Chorasmian Prakrit Turkic
Religion	Hinduism Manichaeism Zoroastrianism Nestorian Christianity
Historical era	Late antiquity
• Established	Empire: 440s
• Disestablished	560 Principalities inTokharistanand theHindu-Kushuntil 710.
Preceded by Succeeded by Kidarites Sasanian Empire Kangju Alchon Huns Nezak Huns First Turkic Khaganate Sasanian Empire Turk Shahis Zunbils Principality of Chaghaniyan

TheHephthalites(Bactrian:ηβοδαλο,romanized:Ebodalo),sometimes called theWhite Huns(also known as theWhite Hunas,inIranianas theSpet Xyonand inSanskritas theSveta-huna),were a people who lived inCentral Asiaduring the 5th to 8th centuries CE, part of the larger group of theIranian Huns.They formed an empire, theImperial Hephthalites,and were militarily important from 450 CE, when they defeated theKidarites,to 560 CE, when combined forces from theFirst Turkic Khaganateand theSasanian Empiredefeated them.After 560 CE, they established "principalities" in the area ofTokharistan,under thesuzeraintyof theWestern Turks(in the areas north of theOxus) and of theSasanian Empire(in the areas south of theOxus), before theTokhara Yabghustook over in 625.

The Imperial Hephthalites, based inBactria,expanded eastwards to theTarim Basin,westwards toSogdiaand southwards throughAfghanistan,but they never went beyond theHindu-Kush,which was occupied by theAlchon Huns,previously mistakenly regarded as an extension of the Hephthalites.They were a tribal confederation and included both nomadic and settled urban communities. They formed part of the four major states known collectively asXyon(Xionites) orHuna,being preceded by theKidaritesand by theAlkhon,and succeeded by theNezak Hunsand by the First Turkic Khaganate. All of these Hunnic peoples have often been linked to theHunswho invaded Eastern Europe during the same period, and/or have been referred to as "Huns", but scholars have reached no consensus about any such connection.

The stronghold of the Hephthalites wasTokharistan(present-day southernUzbekistanand northernAfghanistan) on the northern slopes of theHindu Kush,and their capital was probably atKunduz,having comefrom the east, possibly from the area ofBadakhshan.By 479 the Hephthalites had conqueredSogdiaand driven theKidariteseastwards, and by 493 they had captured parts ofDzungariaand theTarim Basin(in present-dayNorthwest China). TheAlchon Huns,formerly confused with the Hephthalites, expanded intoNorthern Indiaas well.

The sources for Hephthalite history are sparse and the opinions of historians differ. There is no king-list, and historians are not sure how the group arose or what language they initially spoke. They seem to have called themselvesEbodalo(ηβοδαλο, henceHephthal), often abbreviatedEb(ηβ), a name they wrote in theBactrian scripton some of their coins.The origin of the name "Hephthalites" is unknown, it may stem either from aKhotaneseword*Hitalameaning "Strong",from hypotheticalSogdian*Heβtalīt,plural of *Heβtalak,or from postulatedMiddle Persian*haft āl"the SevenAl".

Name and ethnonyms

Hephthalite ruler
The Hephthalites called themselvesēbodāl,as seen in this seal of an early Hephthalite king with theBactrian scriptinscription:

ηβοδαλο ββγο
ēbodālo bbgo
"Yabghu(Lord) of the Hephthalites "
He wears an elaborate radiate crown, and royal ribbons. End 5th century- early 6th century CE.

The Hephthalites called themselvesēbodāl(Bactrian:,Greek script:ηβοδαλο) in their inscriptions, which was commonly abbreviated to(ηβ,"Eb" ) in their coinage.An important and unique seal, held in the private collection of Professor Dr. Aman ur Rahman and published byNicholas Sims-Williamsin 2011,shows an early Hepthalite ruler with a round beardless face and slanted almond-shaped eyes, wearing a radiate crown with a single crescent, and framed by theBactrian scriptlegendηβοδαλο ββγο( "The Lord [Yabghu] of the Hephthalites ").The seal is dated to the end 5th century- early 6th century CE.The ethnic name "Ebodalo", and title "Ebodalo Yabghu", have also been discovered in contemporary Bactrian documents of theKingdom of Robdescribing administrative functions under the Hephthalites.

Byzantine Greeksources referred to them asHephthalitae(Ἐφθαλῖται),AbdelorAvdel.To the Armenians, the Hephthalites wereHephthal,Hep't'al&Tetaland sometimes identified with theKushans.To the Persians, Hephthalites are Hephtal, Hephtel, & Hēvtāls. To Arabs, Hephthalites wereHaital,Hetal,Heithal,Haiethal,Heyâthelites,(al-)Hayaṭila(هياطلة), and sometimes identified asTurks.According toZeki Velidi Togan(1985), the formHaytalin Persian and Arabic sources in the first period was a clerical error forHabtal,as Arabic-b-resembles-y-.

In Chinese chronicles, the Hephthalites are calledYàndàiyílìtuó(Chinese:Yếm đái di lật đà), or in the more usual abbreviated form,Yèdā嚈 đátor in the 635Book of Liangas theHuáHoạt.The latter name has been given variousLatinisations,includingYeda,Ye-ta,Ye-tha;Ye-dāandYanda.The correspondingCantoneseandKoreannamesYipdaatandYeoptal(Korean:엽달), which preserve aspects of theMiddle Chinesepronunciation (IPA[ʔjɛpdɑt]) better than the modern Mandarin pronunciation, are more consistent with the GreekHephthalite.Some Chinese chroniclers suggest that the rootHephtha-(as inYàndàiyílìtuóorYèdā) was technically a title equivalent to "emperor", whileHuáwas the name of the dominant tribe.

Inancient India,names such as Hephthalite were unknown. The Hephthalites were part of, or offshoots of, people known in India asHunasorTurushkas,although these names may have referred to broader groups or neighbouring peoples. Ancient Sanskrit textPravishyasutramentions a group of people namedHavitarasbut it is unclear whether the term denotes Hephthalites.The Indians also used the expression "White Huns" (Sveta Huna) for the Hephthalites.

Geographical origin and expansion

Sasanian Empire

Kunduz

Samarkand

Chaganian

Herat

Merv

Kashgar

Balkh

Udabhanda

Alchon Huns

Bamyan

Bactria

Ghazni

Kabul

Yeda

Wakhan

BADAKHSHAN

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The Hephthalites came fromBadakhshanor theAltai,and always had their historical stronghold inBactria(Tokharistan), with their capital inKunduz.

According to recent scholarship, the stronghold of the Hephthalites was alwaysTokharistanon the northern slopes of theHindu Kush,in what is present-day southernUzbekistanand northernAfghanistan.Their capital was probably atKunduz,which was known to the 11th-century scholaral-BiruniasWar-Walīz,a possible origin of one of the names given by the Chinese to Hephthalites: Hoạt (Middle Chinese(ZS) *ɦˠuat̚>standard Chinese:Huá).

The Hephthalites may have come from the East, through thePamir Mountains,possibly from the area ofBadakhshan.Alternatively, they may have migrated from theAltairegion, among the waves of invading Huns.

Following their westward or southward expansion, the Hephthalites settled inBactria,and displaced theAlchon Huns,who expanded into Northern India. The Hephthalites came into contact with theSasanian Empire,and were involved in helping militarilyPeroz Iseize the throne from his brotherHormizd III.

Later, in the late 5th century, the Hephthalites expanded into vast areas ofCentral Asia,and occupied theTarim Basinas far asTurfan,taking control of the area from theRourans,who had been collecting heavy tribute from the oasis cities, but were now weakening under the assaults of the ChineseNorthern Wei dynasty.

Origins and characteristics

See also:Origins of the Huns

Murals fromDilberjin Tepe,thought to represent early Hephthalites.The ruler wears a radiate crown which is comparable to the crown of the king on the"Yabghu of the Hephthalites"seal.

There have been several theories regarding the origins of the Hephthalites, with theIranianandAltaictheories being the main ones. The most prominent theory at present seems to be that the Hephthalites were initially of Turkic origin, and later adopted the Bactrian language.

According to most specialist scholars, the Hephthalites adoptedBactrianas their official language, just as theKushanshad done, following their settlement inBactria/Tokharistan.Bactrian was anEastern Iranian language,but was written in theGreek alphabet,a remnant of theGreco-Bactrian kingdomin the 3rd–2nd century BCE.Bactrian,beyond being an official language, was also the language of the local populations ruled by the Hephthalites.

The Hephthalites inscribed their coins inBactrian,the titles they held were Bactrian, such as XOAΔHO or Šao,and of probable Chinese origin, such asYabghu,the names of Hephthalite rulers given inFerdowsi'sShahnamehare Iranian,and gem inscriptions and other evidence shows that theofficial languageof the Hephthalite elite was East Iranian.In 1959, Kazuo Enoki proposed that the Hephthalites were probably Indo-European (East)Iranianswho originated inBactria/Tokharistan,based on the fact that ancient sources generally located them in the area betweenSogdiaand theHindu-Kush,and the Hephthalites had some Iranian characteristics.Richard Nelson Fryecautiously accepted Enoki's hypothesis, while at the same time stressing that the Hephthalites "were probably a mixed horde".According to theEncyclopaedia IranicaandEncyclopaedia of Islam,the Hephthalites possibly originated in what is todayAfghanistan.

A few scholars, such asMarquartandGroussetproposedProto-Mongolicorigins.Yu Taishan traced the Hephthalites' origins to theXianbeiand further toGoguryeo.

Other scholars such asde la Vaissière,based on a recent reappraisal of the Chinese sources, suggest that the Hephthalites were initially of Turkic origin, and later adopted the Bactrian language, first for administrative purposes, and possibly later as a native language — according toRezakhani (2017),this thesis is seemingly the "most prominent at present".

The banquet scenes in the murals ofBalalyk Tepeshow the life of the Hephthalite ruling class ofTokharistan.

In effect, the Hephthalites may have been a confederation of various people, speaking different languages. According toRichard Nelson Frye:

Just as laternomadicempires were confederations of many peoples, we may tentatively propose that the ruling groups of these invaders were, or at least included, Turkic-speaking tribesmen from the east and north, although most probably the bulk of the people in the confederation of Chionites and then Hephhtalites spoke an Iranian language. In this case, as normal, the nomads adopted the written language, institutions, and culture of the settled folks.

Relation to European Huns

According to Martin Schottky, the Hephthalites apparently had no direct connection with the EuropeanHuns,but may have been causally related with their movement. The tribes in question deliberately called themselves "Huns" in order to frighten their enemies.On the contrary,de la Vaissièreconsiders that the Hepthalites were part of the greatHunnicmigrations of the 4th century CE from the Altai region that also reached Europe, and that these Huns "were the political, and partly cultural, heirs of theXiongnu".This massive migration was apparently triggered byclimate change,with aridity affecting the mountain grazing grounds of theAltay Mountainsduring the 4th century CE.According to Amanda Lomazoff and Aaron Ralby, there is a high synchronicity between the "reign of terror" ofAttilain the west and the southern expansion of the Hephthalites, with extensive territorial overlap between the Huns and the Hephthalites in Central Asia.

The 6th-centuryByzantinehistorianProcopiusof Caesarea (History of the Wars, Book I. ch. 3), related them to the Huns in Europe, but insisted on cultural and sociological differences, highlighting the sophistication of the Hephthalites:

The Ephthalitae Huns, who are called White Huns [...] The Ephthalitae are of the stock of the Huns in fact as well as in name, however, they do not mingle with any of the Huns known to us, for they occupy a land neither adjoining nor even very near to them; but their territory lies immediately to the north of Persia [...] They are not nomads like the other Hunnic peoples, but for a long period have been established in a goodly land... They are the only ones among the Huns who have white bodies and countenances which are not ugly. It is also true that their manner of living is unlike that of their kinsmen, nor do they live a savage life as they do; but they are ruled by one king, and since they possess a lawful constitution, they observe right and justice in their dealings both with one another and with their neighbors, in no degree less than the Romans and the Persians

Chinese chronicles

Probable Hephthalite royal couple in the murals of theBuddhas of Bamiyancirca 600 CE (the 38-meter Buddha they decorate is carbon dated to 544 – 595 CE).Their characteristics are similar to the figures inBalalyk Tepe,such as the right side triangular lapel, hairstyles, faces and ornaments, and reflect Hephthalite styles.The Bamiyan complex developed under Hephthalite rule.

The Hephthalites were first known to the Chinese in 456 CE, when a Hephthalite embassy arrived at the Chinese court of theNorthern Wei.The Chinese used various names for the Hephthalites, such asHua( hoạt ),Ye-tha-i-li-to(simp. Yếm đái di lật đà, trad. Yếm đái di túc đà ) or more brieflyYe-da(嚈 đát ).Ancientimperial Chinesechronicles give various explanations about the origins of the Hephthalites:

• They were descendants "of theGaojuor theDa Yuezhi"according to the earliest chronicles such as theBook of Weior theHistory of the Northern Dynasties.
• They were descendants "of theDa Yuezhitribes ", according to many later chronicles.
• The ancient historianPei Ziyeconjectured that the "Hua" ( hoạt ) may be descendants of aJushigeneral of the 2nd century CE because that general was named "Bahua" ( bát hoạt ). This etymological fantasy was adopted by theBook of Liang(Volume 30andVolume 54).
• Another etymological fantasy appeared in theTongdian,reporting an account by the traveller Wei Jie according to which the Hephthalites may have been the descendants of theKangjubecause a Kangju general of theEastern Hanhappened to be named "Yitian".

Kazuo Enoki made a first groundbreaking analysis of the Chinese sources in 1959, suggesting that the Hephthalites were a local tribe of theTokharistan(Bactria) region, with their origin in the nearby WesternHimalayas.He also used as an argument the presence of numerousBactriannames among the Hephthalites, and the fact that the Chinese reported that they practicedpolyandry,a well-known West Himalayan cultural trait.

According to a recent reappraisal of the Chinese sources byde la Vaissière(2003), only the TurkicGaojuorigin of the Hephthalites should be retained as indicative of their primary ethnicity, and the mention of theDa Yuezhionly stems from the fact that, at the time, the Hephthalites had already settled in the formerDa Yuezhiterritory ofBactria,where they are known to have used the Eastern IranianBactrian language.The earliest Chinese source on this encounter, the near-contemporary chronicles of the Northern Wei (Weishu) as quoted in the laterTongdian,reports that they migrated southward from theAltairegion circa 360 CE:

The Hephthalites are a branch of theGaoju( cao xa, "High Carts" ) or theDa Yuezhi,they originated from the north of the Chinese frontier and came down south from the Jinshan (Altai) mountains [...] This was 80 to 90 years beforeEmperor Wen(r. 440–465 CE) of theNorthern Wei(i.e. circa 360 CE)
嚈 đát quốc,Hoặc vânCao xaChi biệt chủng, hoặc vânĐại nguyệt thịChi biệt chủng. Kỳ nguyên xuất ô tắc bắc. Tự kim sơn nhi nam. [...] chíHậu ngụyVăn đếThời dĩ bát cửu thập niên hĩ

— Extract of theWeishuchronicles as copied inTongdian.

TheGaoju( cao xa lit. "High Cart" ), also known asTiele,were early Turkic speakers related to the earlierDingling,who were once conquered by theXiongnu.Weishualso mentioned the linguistic and ethnic proximity between the Gaoju and the Xiongnu.De la Vaissière proposes that the Hephthalites had originally been one Oghuric-speaking tribe who belonged the Gaoju/Tiele confederation.This and several later Chinese chronicles also report that the Hephthalites may have originated from theDa Yuezhi,probably because of their settlement in the former Da Yuezhi territory ofBactria.Later Chinese sources become quite confused about the origins of the Hephthalites, and this may be due to their progressive assimilation of Bactrian culture and language once they settled there.

According to theBeishi,describing the situation in the first half of the 6th century CE around the timeSong Yunvisited Central Asia, the language of the Hephthalites was different from that of the Rouran, Gaoju or other tribes of Central Asia, but that probably reflects their acculturation and adoption of the Bactrian language since their arrival inBactriain the 4th century CE.TheLiangshuandLiang Zhigongtudo explain that the Hephthalites originally had no written language and adopted thehu(local, "Barbarian" ) alphabet, in this case, theBactrian script.

Overall, de la Vaissière considers that the Hephthalites were part of the greatHunnicmigrations of the 4th century CE from the Altai region that also reached Europe and that these Huns "were the political, and partly cultural, heirs, of theXiongnu".

Appearance

Another painting of the Tokharistan school, fromTavka Kurgan.It is closely related toBalalyk tepe,"especially in the treatment of the face". Termez Archaeological Museum.

The Hepthalites appear in several mural paintings in the area ofTokharistan,especially in banquet scenes atBalalyk tepeand as donors to the Buddha in the ceiling painting of the 35-meter Buddha at theBuddhas of Bamyan.Several of the figures in these paintings have a characteristic appearance, with belted jackets with a unique lapel of their tunic being folded on the right side, a style which became popular under the Hephthalites,the cropped hair, the hair accessories, their distinctive physionomy and their round beardless faces.The figures at Bamyan must represent the donors and potentates who supported the building of the monumental giant Buddha.These remarkable paintings participate "to the artistic tradition of the Hephthalite ruling classes ofTukharistan".

The paintings related to the Hephthalites have often been grouped under the appellation of "Tokharistan school of art",or the "Hephthalite stage in the History of Central Asia Art".The paintings ofTavka Kurgan,of very high quality, also belong to this school of art, and are closely related to other paintings of the Tokharistan school such asBalalyk tepe,in the depiction of clothes, and especially in the treatment of the faces.

This "Hephthalite period" in art, with the caftans with a triangular collar folded on the right, the particular cropped hairstyle, the crowns with crescents, have been found in many of the areas historically occupied and ruled by the Hephthalites, inSogdia,Bamyan(modernAfghanistan), or inKuchain theTarim Basin(modernXinjiang,China). This points to a "political and cultural unification ofCentral Asia"with similar artistic styles and iconography, under the rule of the Hephthalites.

History

The Hephthalites used theBactrian script(top), an adaptation of theGreek script(bottom). Here, theirendonymEbodalo,"Hephthalites".

The Hephthalites were a vassal state to theRouran Khaganateuntil the beginning of the 5th century.There were close contacts between them, although they had different languages and cultures, and the Hephthalites borrowed much of their political organization from Rourans.In particular, the title "Khan",which according to McGovern was original to the Rourans, was borrowed by the Hephthalite rulers.The reason for the migration of the Hephthalites southeast was to avoid a pressure of the Rourans.

The Hephthalites became a significant political entity in Bactria around 450 CE, or sometime before.It has been commonly assumed that the Hephthalites formed a third wave of migrations into Central Asia, after theChionites(who arrived circa 350 CE) and theKidarites(who arrived from around 380 CE), but recent studies suggest that instead there may have been a single massive wave of nomadic migrations around 350–360 CE, the "Great Invasion", triggered by climate change and the onset of aridity in the grazing grounds of the Altay region, and that these nomadic tribes vied for supremacy thereafter in their new territories in Southern Central Asia.As they rose to prominence, the Hephthalites displaced theKidaritesand then theAlchon Huns,who expanded intoGandharaand Northern India.

The Hephthalites as vanquished enemies (face down on the floor), and then as allies (seated), in the SasanianBandian complex.The inscription next to the seated ruler reads: "I am Hephthalite, son… the Hephthalite is trustworthy".459-497 CE

The Hephthalites also entered into conflict with the Sasanians. The reliefs of theBandian complexseem to show the initial defeat of the Hephthalites against the Sasanians in 425 CE, and then their alliance with them, from the time ofBahram V(420-438 CE), until they invaded Sasanian territory and destroyed the Bandian complex in 484 CE.

In 456–457 a Hephthalite embassy arrived in China, during the reign ofEmperor Wenof theNorthern Wei.By 458 they were strong enough to intervene inPersia.

Around 466 they probably took Transoxianan lands from theKidariteswith Persian help but soon took from Persia the area ofBalkhand easternKushanshahr.In the second half of the fifth century they controlled the deserts ofTurkmenistanas far as theCaspian Seaand possiblyMerv.By 500 they held the whole ofBactriaand thePamirsand parts ofAfghanistan.In 509, they capturedSogdiaand they took 'Sughd' (the capital ofSogdiana).

To the east, they captured theTarim Basinand went as far asUrumqi.

Around 560 CE their empire was destroyed by an alliance of the First Turkic Khaganate and theSasanian Empire,but some of them remained as local rulers in the region ofTokharistanfor the next 150 years, under the suzerainty of the Western Turks, followed by theTokhara Yabghus.Among the principalities which remained in Hephthalite hands even after the Turkic overcame their territory were:Chaganian,andKhuttalin theVakhsh Valley.

Ascendancy over the Sasanian Empire (442–c.530 CE)

See also:Hephthalite–Persian Wars

Early Hephthalite coinage: a close imitation of a coin type of theSasanian EmperorPeroz I(third period coinage of Peroz I, after 474 CE).Late 5th century CE. This coinage is typically distinguished from Sasanian issues by dots around the border and the abbreviation(ηβ "ēb" ) in front of the crown of Peroz I, abbreviation of ηβοδαλο "ĒBODALO", for "Hepthalites".

A rareHephthalitecoin.Obverse:Hephthalite prince wearing a belted caftan with single right lapel, and holding a drinking cup. Probable Bactrian legend ηβοδαλο "ĒBODALO" to the right.Reverse:Sasanian-style bust imitatingKhavadh I,whom the Hephthalites had helped to the Sasanian throne. Hephthalitetamghabefore the face of Khavad.First half of the 6th century CE.

The Hephthalites were originally vassals of theRouran Khaganatebut split from their overlords in the early fifth century. The next time they were mentioned was in Persian sources as foes ofYazdegerd II(435–457), who from 442, fought 'tribes of the Hephthalites', according to the ArmenianElisee Vardaped.

In 453, Yazdegerd moved his court east to deal with the Hephthalites or related groups.

In 458, a Hephthalite king calledAkhshunwarhelped theSasanian EmperorPeroz I(458–484) gain the Persian throne from his brother.Before his accession to the throne, Peroz had been the Sasanian forSistanin the far east of the Empire, and therefore had been one of the first to enter into contact with the Hephthalites and request their help.

The Hephthalites may have also helped the Sasanians to eliminate another Hunnic tribe, theKidarites:by 467, Peroz I, with Hephthalite aid, reportedly managed to capture Balaam and put an end to Kidarite rule inTransoxianaonce and for all.The weakened Kidarites had to take refuge in the area ofGandhara.

Victories over the Sasanian Empire (474–484 CE)

Later, however, from 474 CE, Peroz I fought three wars with his former allies the Hephthalites. In the first two, he himself was captured and ransomed.Following his second defeat, he had to offer thirty mules loaded with silver drachms to the Hephthalites, and also had to leave his sonKavadas a hostage.The coinage ofPeroz Iin effect flooded Tokharistan, taking precedence over all other Sasanian issues.

In the third battle, at theBattle of Herat (484),he was vanquished by the Hepthalite king Kun-khi, and for the next two years the Hephthalites plundered and controlled the eastern part of the Sasanian Empire.Perozduxt, the daughter of Peroz, was captured and became a lady as the Hephtalite court, as Queen of king Kun-khi.She became pregnant and had a daughter who would later marry her uncleKavad I.From 474 until the middle of the 6th century, the Sasanian Empire paid tribute to the Hephthalites.

Bactriacame under formal Hephthalite rule from that time.Taxes were levied by the Hephthalites over the local population: a contract in theBactrian languagefrom the archive of theKingdom of Rob,has been found, which mentions taxes from the Hephthalites, requiring the sale of land in order to pay these taxes. It is dated to 483/484 CE.

Hephthalite coinage

With theSasanian Empirepaying a heavy tribute, from 474, the Hephthalites themselves adopted the winged, triple-crescent crownedPeroz Ias the design for their coinage.Benefiting from the influx ofSasanian silver coins,the Hephthalites did not develop their own coinage: they either minted coins with the same designs as the Sasanians, or simply countermarked Sasanian coins with their own symbols.They did not inscribe the name of their ruler, contrary to the habit of theAlchon Hunsor theKidaritesbefore them.Exceptionally, one coin type deviates from the Sasanian design, by showing the bust of a Hepthalite prince holding a drinking cup.Overall, the Sasanians paid "an enormous tribute" to the Hephthalites, until the 530s and the rise ofKhosrow I.

Protectors of Kavad

Following their victory over Peroz I, the Hepthalites became protectors and benefactors of his sonKavad I,asBalash,a brother of Peroz took the Sasanian throne.In 488, a Hepthalite army vanquished the Sasaniana army of Balash, and was able to putKavad I(488–496, 498–531) on the throne.

In 496–498, Kavad I was overthrown by the nobles and clergy, escaped, and restored himself with a Hephthalite army.Joshua the Stylitereports numerous instances in which Kavadh led Hepthalite ( "Hun" ) troops, in the capture of the city ofTheodosiupolis of Armeniain 501–502, in battles against the Romans in 502–503, and again during thesiege of Edessain September 503.

Hephthalites in Tokharistan (466 CE)

Hephthalite-style couple at a banquet, with man in single-lapel caftan. Inscription: "Dhenakk, the son ofxwn(Hun) ".Bactria,second half of the 5th century CE.St. Petersburg,State Hermitage Museum.

A tax receipt inBactrianfor the Hephthalites in Tokharistan. Archives of theKingdom of Rob,483/484 CE.

Around 461–462 CE, anAlchon Hunruler namedMehamais known to have been based in Eastern Tokharistan, possibly indicating a partition of the region between the Hephthalites in western Tokharistan, centered onBalkh,and theAlchon Hunsin eastern Tokharistan, who would then go on to expand into northern India.Mehamaappears ina letterin the Bactrian language he wrote in 461–462 CE, where he describes himself as "Meyam, King of the people of Kadag, the governor of the famous and prosperous King of Kings Peroz".Kadag is Kadagstan, an area in southern Bactria, in the region ofBaghlan.Significantly, he presents himself as a vassal of theSasanian EmpirekingPeroz I,but Mehama was probably later able to wrestle autonomy or even independence as Sasanian power waned and he moved into India, with dire consequences for theGupta Empire.

The Hepthalites probably expanded intoTokharistanfollowing the destruction of theKidaritesin 466. The presence of the Hepthalites in Tokharistan (Bactria) is securely dated to 484 CE, date ofa tax receiptfrom theKingdom of Robmentioning the need to sell some land in order to pay Hephthalite taxes.Two documents were also found, with dates from the period from 492 to 527 CE, mentioning taxes paid to Hephthalite rulers. Another, undated documents, mentions scribal and judiciary functions under the Hephthalites:

Sartu, the son of Hwade-gang, the prosperousYabghuof the Hepthalite people (ebodalo shabgo); Haru Rob, the scribe of the Hephthalite ruler (ebodalo eoaggo), the judge ofTokharistanandGharchistan.

— Document of theKingdom of Rob.

Hephthalite conquest of Sogdiana (479 CE)

Local coinage ofSamarkand,Sogdia,with the Hepthalitetamghaon the reverse.

CHAM-
PA

500

SASANIAN
EMPIRE

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

NORTHERN
WEI

HYMYAR

SOUTHERN
QI

Alchon
Huns

Nezaks

TOCHA-
RIANS

ZHANGZHUNG

FUNAN

TUYUHUN

GUPTA
EMPIRE

HEPHTHALITES

ROURAN KHAGANATE

Kyrgyzs

Gaoju
Turks

Yueban

Magyars

Sabirs

Alans

Kutrigurs

Venedae

Finnish

Ugrians

Yakuts

Bashkirs

Antes

GOGU-
RYEO

AKSUM

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Territory of the Imperial Hephthalites and main Asian polities c. 500 CE

The Hephthalites conquered the territory ofSogdiana,beyond theOxus,which was incorporated into their Empire.They may have conquered Sogdiana as early as 479 CE, as this is the date of the last known embassy of the Sogdians to China.Theaccount of the Liang Zhigongtualso seems to record that from around 479 CE, the Hephthalites occupied the region of Samarkand.Alternatively, the Hephthalites may have occupied Sogdia later in 509 CE, as this is the date of the last known embassy fromSamarkandto the Chinese Empire, but this might not be conclusive as several cities, such asBalkhorKobadiyan,are known to have sent embassies to China as late as 522 CE, while under Hephthalite control.As early as 484, the famous Hephthalite rulerAkhshunwar,who defeatedPeroz I,held a title that may be understood as Sogdian: "’xs’wnd’r" ( "power-holder" ).

The Hephthalites may have built major fortifiedHippodamiancities (rectangular walls with an orthogonal network of streets) in Sogdiana, such asBukharaandPanjikent,as they had also inHerat,continuing the city-building efforts of theKidarites.The Hephthalites probably ruled over a confederation of local rulers or governors, linked through alliance agreements. One of these vassals may have been Asbar, ruler ofVardanzi,who also minted his own coinage during the period.

The wealth of the Sasanian ransoms and tributes may have been reinvested in Sogdia, possibly explaining the prosperity of the region from that time.Sogdia, at the center of a newSilk Roadbetween China to the Sasanian Empire and theByzantine Empirebecame extremely prosperous under its nomadic elites.The Hephthalites took on the role of major intermediary on theSilk Road,after their great predecessor theKushans,and contracted localSogdiansto carry on the trade of silk and other luxury goods between the China Empire and the Sasanian Empire.

Because of the Hephthalite occupation of Sogdia, the original coinage of Sogdia came to be flooded by the influx of Sasanian coins received as a tribute to the Hephthalites. This coinage then spread along theSilk Road.The symbol of the Hephthalites appears on the residual coinage ofSamarkand,probably as a consequence of the Hephthalite control of Sogdia, and becomes prominent in Sogdian coinage from 500 to 700 CE, including in the coinage of their indigenous successors theIkhshids(642-755 CE), ending with theMuslim conquest of Transoxiana.

Tarim Basin (circa 480–550 CE)

Kizil Cavesswordsmen in Hephthalite style.This mural wascarbon datedto 432–538 CE.

Painter in single-lapel caftan, Kizil Caves, circa 500 CE (enlarged detail).The label at his feetis inSanskrit(Gupta script) and reads: "Painting of Tutuka" (CitrakaraTututkasya).

In the late 5th century CE they expanded eastward through thePamir Mountains,which are comparatively easy to cross, as did theKushansbefore them, due to the presence of convenient plateaus between high peaks.They occupied the westernTarim Basin(KashgarandKhotan), taking control of the area from theRourans,who had been collecting heavy tribute from the oasis cities, but were now weakening under the assaults of the ChineseNorthern Wei dynasty.In 479 they took the east end of the Tarim Basin, around the region ofTurfan.In 497–509, they pushed north of Turfan to theUrumchiregion.In the early years of the 6th century, they were sending embassies from their dominions in the Tarim Basin to the Northern Wei dynasty.They were probably in contact withLi Xian,the Chinese Governor ofDunhuang,who is known for having furnished his tomb with a Western-styleewerprobably made inBactria.

The Hephthalites continued to occupy the Tarim Basin until the end of their Empire, circa 560 CE.

As the territories ruled by the Hephthalites expanded into Central Asia and the Tarim Basin, the art of the Hephthalites, characterized by the clothing and hairstyles of the figures being represented, also came to be used in the areas they ruled, such asSogdiana,BamyanorKuchain theTarim Basin(Kizil Caves,Kumtura Caves,Subashi reliquary).In these areas appear dignitaries with caftans with a triangular collar on the right side, crowns with three crescents, some crowns with wings, and a unique hairstyle. Another marker is the two-point suspension system for swords, which seems to have been an Hephthalite innovation, and was introduced by them in the territories they controlled.The paintings from theKucharegion, particularly the swordsmen in theKizil Caves,appear to have been made during Hephthalite rule in the region, circa 480–550 CE.The influence of theart of Gandharain some of the earliest paintings at theKizil Caves,dated to circa 500 CE, is considered as a consequence of the political unification of the area between Bactria andKuchaunder the Hephthalites.Some words of theTocharian languagesmay have been adopted from the Hephthalites in the 6th century CE.

The early Turks of the First Turkic Khaganate then took control of theTurfanandKuchaareas from around 560 CE, and, in alliance with theSasanian Empire,became instrumental in the fall of the Hepthalite Empire.

Hephthalite embassies to Liang China (516–526 CE)

Main article:Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang

Hephthalite ( hoạt,Hua) ambassador at the Chinese court of theSouthern Liangin the capitalJingzhouin 516–526 CE, with explanatory text.Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,painted byPei Ziyeor the futureEmperor Yuan of Liangwhile he was a Governor of theProvince of Jingzhouas a young man between 526 and 539 CE.11th century Song copy.

An illustrated account of a Hepthalite ( hoạt,Hua) embassy to the Chinese court of theSouthern Liangin the capitalJingzhouin 516–526 CE is given inPortraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,originally painted byPei Ziyeor the futureEmperor Yuan of Liangwhile he was a Governor of theProvince of Jingzhouas a young man between 526 and 539 CE,and of which an 11th-century Song copy is preserved.The text explains how small the country of the Hua was when they were still vassals of theRouran Khaganate,and how they later moved to "Moxian", possibly referring to their occupation ofSogdia,and then conquered numerous neighbouring country, including the Sasanian Empire:

When the Suolu (Northern Wei) entered (the Chinese frontier) and settled inthe (valley of the river) Sanggan(i.e. in the period 398–494 CE), the Hua was still a small country and under the rule of theRuirui.In theQi period(479–502 CE), they left (their original area) for the first time and shifted to Moxian (possiblySamarkand), where they settled.Growing more and more powerful in the course of time, the Hua succeeded in conquering the neighbouring countries such as Bosi (Sasanid Persia), Panpan (Tashkurgan?), Jibin (Kashmir), Wuchang (UddiyanaorKhorasan), Qiuci (Kucha), Shule (Kashgar), Yutian (Khotan) and Goupan (Karghalik), and expanded their territory by a thousandli...

— "Hua" paragraph inPortraits of Periodical Offering of Liang.

ThePortraits of Periodical Offering of Liangmentions that no envoys from the Hephthalites came before 516 to the southern court, and it was only in that year that a Hephthalite King named Yilituo Yandai ( tính yếm đái danh di lật đà ) sent an ambassador named Puduoda[] ( bồ đa đạt [], possibly a Buddhist name "Buddhadatta" or "Buddhadāsa" ).In 520, another ambassador named Fuheliaoliao ( phú hà liễu liễu ) visited the Liang court, bringing a yellow lion, a white marten fur coat and Persian brocade as present.Another ambassador named Kang Fuzhen ( khang phù chân ), followed with presents as well (in 526 CE according to theLiangshu).Their language had to be translated by theTuyuhun.

InPortraits of Periodical Offering ofLiang,the Hepthalithes are treated as the most important foreign state, as they occupy the leading position, at the front of the column of foreign ambassadors, and have by far the largest descriptive text.The Hepthalites were, according to theLiangshu(Chap.54), accompanied in their embassy by three states:Humidan( hồ mật đan ),Yarkand( chu cổ kha, Khargalik) andKabadiyan( a bạt đàn ).The envoys from right to left were: the Hephthalites ( hoạt /嚈 đát ),Persia( ba tư ),Korea( bách tế ),Kucha( quy tư ),Japan( uy ),Malaysia( lang nha tu ),Qiang( đặng chí ),Yarkand( chu cổ kha,Zhouguke,"nearHua"),Kabadiyan( a bạt đànHebatan,"nearHua"),Kumedh( hồ mật đan,Humidan,"nearHua"),Balkh( bạch đề,Baiti,"descendants of theXiongnuand east of theHua"),and finallyMerv( mạt ).

Most of the ambassadors from Central Asia are shown wearing heavy beards and relatively long hair, but, in stark contrast, the Hephthalite ambassador, as well as the ambassador fromBalkh,are clean-shaven and bare-headed, and their hair is cropped short.These physical characteristics are also visible in many of the Central Asian seals of the period.

ThePortraits of Periodical Offering of Liangwith descriptions of each ambassador, led by the representative of the Hephthalites (far right), 526–539 CESouthern Liangpainting.National Museum of China.

Other embassies

Overall, Chinese chronicles recorded twenty-four Hephthalite embassies: the first embassy in 456, and the others from 507 to 558 CE (including fifteen to theNorthern Weiuntil the end of this dynasty in 535, and five to theSouthern Liangin 516–541).The last three are mentioned in theZhoushu,which records that the Hepththalites had conqueredAnxi,Yutian(Hotanregion inXinjiang) and more than twenty other countries, and that they sent embassies to the Chinese court of theWestern WeiandNorthern Zhouin 546, 553 and 558 CE respectively, after what the Hepthalites were "crushed by the Turks" and embassies stopped.

The Hephthalites also requested and obtained a Christian bishop from thePatriarch of the Church of the EastMar Aba Icirca 550 CE.

Buddhas of Bamiyan (544–644 CE)

Buddhas of Bamiyan

Painted ceiling over the head of the smaller 38-meter Eastern Buddha

Sun God in Central Asian costume at the center of the ceiling.

Rows of royal donors in Hephthalite costumes with sitting Buddhas, around the Sun God on the ceiling.

TheBuddhas of Bamyan,carbon-datedto 544–595 CE and 591–644 CE respectively,were built under Hephthalite rule in the region.Murals of probable Hephthalite rulersas royal sponsors, around the central Sun God, appear inthe paintingsof the ceiling over the smaller Buddha.

The complex of theBuddhas of Bamiyanwas developed under Hephthalite rule.After the dissolution of their empire in 550-560, the Hephthalites continued to rule in the geographical areas corresponding toTokharistanand today's northernAfghanistan,and particularly held a series of castles on the roads to Bamiyan.Carbon dating of the structural components of the Buddhas has determined that the smaller 38 m (125 ft) "Eastern Buddha" was built around 570 CE (544–595 CE with 95% probability), while the larger 55 m (180 ft) "Western Buddha" was built around 618 CE (591–644 CE with 95% probability).This corresponds to the period soon before or after the major defeat of the Hephthalites against the combined forces of Western Turk andSasanian Empire(557 CE), or the following period during which they regrouped south of the Oxus as Principalities, but essentially before the Western Turks finally overran the region to form theTokhara Yabghus(625 CE).

Among the most famous paintings of the Buddhas of Bamyan, the ceiling of the smaller Eastern Buddha represents a solar deity on a chariot pulled by horses, as well as ceremonial scenes with royal figures and devotees.The god is wearing a caftan in the style ofTokhara,boots, and is holding a lance, he is "The Sun God and a Golden Chariot Rising in Heaven".His representation is derived from the iconography of the Iranian godMithra,as revered inSogdia.He is riding a two-wheeled golden charriot, pulled by four horses.Two winged attendants are standing to the side of the charriot, wearing aCorinthian helmetwith a feather, and holding a shield.In the top portion are wind gods, flying with a scarf held in both hands.This great composition is unique, and has no equivalent inGandharaorIndia,but there are some similarities with the painting ofKizilorDunhuang.

The central image of the Sun God on his golden chariot is framed by two lateral rows in individuals: Kings and dignitaries mingling with Buddhas andBodhisattvas.One of the personages,standing behind a monk in profile, much be the King of Bamyan.He wears a crenelated crown with single crescent andkorymbos,a round-neck tunic and a Sasanian headband.Several of the figures, eitherroyal couples,crowned individualsorrichly dressed women,have the characteristic appearance of the Hephthalites ofTokharistan,with belted jackets with a unique lapel of their tunic being folded on the right side, the cropped hair, the hair accessories, their distinctive physionomy and their round beardless faces.These figures must represent the donors and potentates who supported the building of the monumental giant Buddha.They are gathered around theSeven Buddhas of the pastandMaitreya.The individuals in this painting are very similar to the individuals depicted inBalalyk Tepe,and they may be related to theHepthalites.They participate "to the artistic tradition of the Hephthalite ruling classes ofTukharestan".

These murals disappeared with the destruction of the statues by theTalibanin 2001.

Hephthalite royals on the tombs of Sogdian traders

Probable Hephthalite royal figures in theTomb of Wirkak(580 CE).

TheTomb of Wirkakis the tomb of a 6th-century Sogdian trader established in China, and discovered inXi'an.It seems that depictions of Hephthalite rulers are omnipresent in the pictorial decorations of the tomb, as royal figures with elaborate Sasanian-type crowns appearing in their palaces, nomadic yurts or while hunting.Hephthalites rulers are shown short-haired, wearing tunics, and are often depicted together with their female consort.The Sogdian trader Wirkak may therefore have primarily dealt with the Hephthalites during his young years (he was around 60 when the Hephthalites were finally destroyed by the alliance of theSasaniansand the Turks between 556 and 560 CE).The Hephthalites also appear in four panels of theMiho funerary couch(c.570 CE) with somewhat caricatural features, and characteristics of vassals to the Turks.On the contrary, the depictions in the tombs of later Sogdian traders, such as theTomb of An Jia(who was 24 years younger than Wirwak), already show the omnipresence of the Turks of the First Turkic Khaganate, who were probably his main trading partners during his active life.

End of the Empire and fragmentation into Hephthalite Principalities (560–710 CE)

Hephthalite coin of thePrincipality of Chaghaniyan,after the fall of the Hephthalite Empire, with crowned King and Queen, inByzantine fashion,circa 550–650 CE.

AfterKavad I,the Hephthalites seem to have shifted their attention away from theSasanian Empire,and Kavad's successorKhosrow I(531–579) was able to resume an expansionist policy to the east.According toal-Tabari,Khosrow I managed, through his expansionsit policy, to take control of "Sind,Bust, Al-Rukkhaj,Zabulistan,Tukharistan,Dardistan, andKabulistan"as he ultimately defeated the Hephthalites with the help of the First Turkic Khaganate.

In 552, theGöktürkstook over Mongolia, formed theFirst Turkic Khaganate,and by 558 reached theVolga.Circa 555–567,the Turks of the First Turkic Khaganate and the Sasanians underKhosrow Iallied against the Hephthalites and defeated them after an eight-day battle nearQarshi,theBattle of Gol-Zarriun,perhaps in 557.

These events put an end to the Hephthalite Empire, which fragmented into semi-independent Principalities, paying tribute to either the Sasanians or the Turks, depending on the military situation.After the defeat, the Hephthalites withdrew to Bactria and replaced king Gatfar withFaghanish,the ruler ofChaghaniyan.Thereafter, the area around the Oxus inBactriacontained numerous Hephthalites principalities, remnants of the greatHephthalite Empiredestroyed by the alliance of the Turks and the Sasanians.They are reported in theZarafshan valley,Chaghaniyan,Khuttal,Termez,Balkh,Badghis,HeratandKabul,in the geographical areas corresponding toTokharistanand today's northernAfghanistan.They also held a series of castles on the roads toBamiyan.Extensive Hephthalitekurghannecropoli have been excavated all over the region, as well as a possible one in the Bamiyan valley.

The Sasanians and Turks established a frontier for their zones of influence along theOxus river,and the Hephthalite Principalities functioned as buffer states between two Empires.But when the Hephthalites choseFaghanishas their king in Chaganiyan,Khosrow Icrossed the Oxus and put the Principalities ofChaghaniyanandKhuttalunder tribute.

When Khosrow I died in 579, the Hephthalites ofTokharistanandKhotantook advantage of the situation to rebel against the Sasanians, but their efforts were obliterated by the Turks.By 581 or before, the western part of the First Turkic Khaganate separated and became theWestern Turkic Khaganate.In 588, triggering theFirst Perso-Turkic War,the TurkicKhaganBagha Qaghan(known as Sabeh/Saba inPersiansources), together with his Hephthalite subjects, invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed inBalkh,and then proceeded to conquer the city along withTalaqan,Badghis,andHerat.They were finally repelled by the Sasanian generalVahram Chobin.

Raids into the Sasanid Empire (600–610 CE)

Hephthalite
Principalities

Ispahan

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

SUI /
TANG
CHINA

Later
Guptas

Alchon
Huns

WESTERN
TURKS

raids

SASANIAN
EMPIRE

Hephthalites Principalities c. 557–710 CE

Circa 600, the Hephthalites were raiding theSasanian Empireas far asIspahan(Spahan) in central Iran. The Hephthalites issued numerous coins imitating the coinage of Khosrow II, adding on the obverse aHephthalitesignature inSogdianand aTamghasymbol.

Circa 616/617 CE theGöktürksand Hephthalites raided theSasanian Empire,reaching the province of Isfahan.Khosrow recalledSmbat IV BagratunifromPersian Armeniaand sent him to Iran to repel the invaders. Smbat, with the aid of a Persian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Hephthalites from Persia, and plundered their domains ineastern Khorasan,where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat. Khosrow then gave Smbat the honorific titleKhosrow Shun( "the Joy or Satisfaction of Khosrow" ), while his sonVaraztirots II Bagratunireceived the honorific nameJavitean Khosrow( "Eternal Khosrow" ).

Western Turk takeover (625 CE)

Ambassador fromChaganianvisiting kingVarkhumanofSamarkand648–651 CE.Afrasiyab murals,Samarkand.Chaganian was an "Hephthalite buffer principality" betweenDenovandTermez.

Main articles:Western TurksandTokhara Yabghus

From 625 CE, the territory of the Hephthalites fromTokharistantoKabulistanwas taken over by theWestern Turks,forming an entity ruled by Western Turk nobles, theTokhara Yabghus.The Tokhara Yabghus or "Yabghus of Tokharistan" (Chinese:Thổ hỏa la diệp hộ;pinyin:Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù), were a dynasty ofWestern Turksub-kings, with the title "Yabghus",who ruled from 625 CE south of theOxus river,in the area ofTokharistanand beyond, with some smaller polities surviving in the area ofBadakhshanuntil 758 CE. Their legacy was extended to the southeast until the 9th century CE, with theTurk Shahisand theZunbils.

Arab invasion (c.651 CE)

Circa 650 CE, during the Arab conquest of the Sasanian Empire, the Sasanian Empire rulerYazdegerd IIIwas trying to regroup and gather forces around Tokharistan and was hoping to obtain the help of the Turks, after his defeat to the Arabs in theBattle of Nihâvand(642 CE).Yazdegerd was initially supported by the HephthalitePrincipality of Chaghaniyan,which sent him troops to aid him against the Arabs. But when Yazdegerd arrived inMerv(in what is today'sTurkmenistan) he demanded tax from theMarzbanof Marw, losing his support and making him ally with the Hephthalite ruler ofBadghis,Nezak Tarkan.The Hepthalite ruler of Badghis allied with theMarzbanof Merv attack Yazdegerd and defeated him in 651.Yazdegerd III barely escaped with his life but was murdered in the vicinity of Merv soon after, and the Arabs managed to capture the city of Merv the same year.

In 652 CE, following theSiege of Herat (652)to which the Hephthalites participated, the Arabs captured the cities of northern Tokharistan,Balkhincluded, and the Hepthalites principalities were forced to pay tribute and accept Arab garrisons.The Hephthalites again rebelled in 654 CE, leading to theBattle of Badghis.

In 659, Chinese chronicles still mentioned the "Hephtalite Tarkans" ( ấp đạt thái hãnYida Taihan,probably related to "Nezak Tarkan"), as some of the rulers in Tokharistan who remained theoretically subjects to the Chinese Empire, and whose main city was Huolu hoạt lộ (modernMazār-e Sherif,Afghanistan).

The city ofMervbecame the base of the Arabs for their Central Asian operations.The Arabs weakened during the 4-year civil war leading to the establishment of theUmayyad Caliphatein 661, but they were able to continue their expansion after that.

Hephthalite revolts against the Ummayad Caliphate (689–710 CE)

Hephthalite copy of a Sasano-Arab coin ofAbd Allah ibn KhazimwithAH69 (688 CE) date. In the margin: a Hephthalite countermark with crowned facing head and a latetamgha.Circa 700 CE.

Circa 689 CE, the Hephthalite ruler ofBadghisand the Arab rebel Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim, son of theZubayridgovernor of KhurasanAbd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami,allied against the forces of theUmayyad Caliphate.The Hepthalites and their allies capturedTermezin 689, repelled the Arabs, and occupied the whole region ofKhorasanfor a brief period, with Termez as the capital, described by the Arabs as "the headquarters of the Hephthalites" (dār mamlakat al-Hayāṭela).The Arabs of theUmayyad CaliphateunderYazid ibn al-Muhallabre-capturedTermezin 704.Nezak Tarkan,the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a new revolt in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, theYabghu of Tokharistan.In 710,Qutaiba ibn Muslimwas able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nezak Tarkan who was executed onal-Hajjaj's orders, despite promises of pardon, while the Yabghu was exiled toDamascusand kept there as a hostage.

In 718 CE, Chinese chronicles still mention the Hephthalites ( ấp đạtYida) as one of the polities under the suzerainty of the TurkicTokhara Yabghus,capable of providing 50,000 soldiers at the service of its overlord.Some remnants, not necessarily dynastic, of the Hephthalite confederation would be incorporated into theGöktürks,as anOld Tibetandocument, dated to the 8th century, mentioned the tribeHeb-dalamong 12Dru-gutribes ruled byEastern TurkickhaganBug-chor,i.e.Qapaghan QaghanChinese chronicles report embassies from the "Hephtalite kingdom" as late as 748 CE.

Military and weapons

Swords with ornate cloisonné designs, found in the paintings of theKizil Caves,may be versions of daggers produced under Hephthalite influence.The sword guards of the knights () depicted in the "Cave of the Painters"at Kizil have typicalHunnishdesigns of rectangle or oval shapes withcloisonnéornamentation, and are dated to the 5th century CE.

Gyerim-ro dagger

The Hephthalites were considered to be a powerful military force.Depending on sources, their main weapon was the bow, the mace or the sword.Judging from their military achievements, they probably had a strong cavalry.In Persia, according to the 6th-century Armenian chroniclerLazar Parpetsi:

Even in time of peace the mere sight or mention of a Hephthalite terrified everybody, and there was no question of going to war openly against one, for everybody remembered all too clearly the calamities and defeats inflicted by the Hephthalites on the king of the Aryans and on the Persians.

"Hunnic" designs in weaponry are known to have influenced Sasanian designs during the 6th–7th century CE, just before the Islamic invasions.The Sasanians adopted Hunnish nomadic designs for straight iron swords and their gold-covered scabbards.This is particularly the case of two-straps suspension design, in which straps of different lengths were attached to a P-shaped projection on the scabbard, so that the sword could be held sideways, making it easier to draw, especially when on horseback.The two-point suspension system for swords is considered to have been introduced by the Hephthalites in Central Asia and in the Sasanian Empire and is a marker of their influence, and the design was generally introduced by them in the territories they controlled.The first example of two-suspension sword in Sasanian art occurs in a relief ofTaq-i Bustandated to the time ofKhusro II(590–628 CE), and is thought to have been adopted from the Hepthalites.

Swords with ornate cloisonné designs and two-straps suspensions, as found in the paintings ofPenjikentandKiziland in archaeological excavations, may be versions of the daggers produced under Hephthalite influence.Weapons with Hunnic designs are depicted in the "Cave of the Painters" in theKizil Caves,in a mural showing armoured warriors and dated to the 5th century CE.Their sword guards have typicalHunnishdesigns of rectangle or oval shapes withcloisonnéornamentation.TheGyerim-ro dagger,found in a tomb in Korea, is a 5-6th century highly decorated dagger and scabbard of "Hunnic" two-straps suspension design, introduced by the Hephthalites in Central Asia.The Gyerim-ro dagger is thought to have reached Korea either through trade or as a diplomatic gift.

Lamellar helmetswere also popularized by the steppe nomads, and were adopted by theSasanian Empirewhen they took control of former Hephthalite territory.This type of helmet appears in sculptures onpillar capitalsatṬāq-e BostānandBehistun,and onthe Anahita coinageofKhosrow II(r. 590–628 CE).

Sasanian sword and scabbard derived from "Hunnic" two-straps suspension designs, Sasanian Empire, 7th century CE.

Religion and culture

The Buddhist "Hunter King" fromKakrak,a valley next toBamyanis often presented as a result of Hephthalite influence, especially in reference to the "triple-crescent crown". Wall paintings from the 7th–8th century, Kabul Museum.

They were said to practicepolyandryandartificial cranial deformation.Chinese sources said they worshiped 'foreign gods', 'demons', the 'heaven god' or the 'fire god'. The Gokturks told the Byzantines that they had walled cities. Some Chinese sources said that they had no cities and lived in tents. Litvinsky tries to resolve this by saying that they were nomads who moved into the cities they had conquered. There were some government officials but central control was weak and local dynasties paid tribute.

According toSong Yun,the Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Hephthalite territory in 540 and "provides accurate accounts of the people, their clothing, the empresses and court procedures and traditions of the people and he states the Hephthalites did not recognize the Buddhist religion and they preached pseudo gods, and killed animals for their meat."It is reported that some Hephthalites often destroyed Buddhist monasteries but these were rebuilt by others. According toXuanzang,the third Chinese pilgrim who visited the same areas as Song Yun about 100 years later, the capital ofChaghaniyanhad five monasteries.

The triple-crescent crown in thisPenjikent mural(top left corner), is considered as a Hephthalite marker. 7th-early 8th century.

According to historian André Wink, "...in the Hephthalite dominionBuddhismwas predominant but there was also a religious sediment ofZoroastrianismandManichaeism."Balkhhad some 100Buddhistmonasteries and 30,000 monks. Outside the town was a large Buddhist monastery, later known asNaubahar.

There wereChristiansamong the Hephthalites by the mid-6th century, although nothing is known of how they were converted. In 549, they sent a delegation toAba I,thepatriarchof theChurch of the East,asking him to consecrate a priest chosen by them as their bishop, which the patriarch did. The new bishop then performed obeisance to both the patriarch and the Sasanian king,Khosrow I.The seat of the bishopric is not known, but it may have beenBadghis–Qadištan, the bishop of which, Gabriel, sent a delegate to the synod of PatriarchIshoyahb Iin 585.It was probably placed under themetropolitan of Herat.The church's presence among the Hephthalites enabled them to expand their missionary work across the Oxus. In 591, some Hephthalites serving in the army of the rebelBahram Chobinwere captured byKhosrow IIand sent to theRoman emperorMauriceas a diplomatic gift. They hadNestorian crossestattooed on their foreheads.

Hephthalite seals

Stamp seal with a bearded figure in Sasanian dress, wearing thekulāfdenoting nobility and officials; and a figure with radiate crown,both with royal ribbons. Attributed to the Hephthalites,and recently dated to the 5th–6th century CE.According to earlier sources, Bivar (1969) and Livshits (1969), repeated by the British Museum, the seal was dated to the 300–350 CE.Stamp seal (BM 119999),British Museum.

Several seals found in Bactria and Sogdia have been attributed to the Hephthalites.

• The "Hephthalite Yabghu seal"shows a Hephthalite ruler with a radiate crown, royal ribbons and a beardless face, with theBactrian scripttitle "EbodaloYabghu"(ηβοδαλο ββγο, "The Lord of the Hephthalites" ), and has been dated to the end of the 5th century-early 6th century CE.This important seal was published by Judith A. Lerner andNicholas Sims-Williamsin 2011.
• Stamp seal (BM 119999)in theBritish Museumshows two facing figures, one bearded and wearing the Sasanian dress, and the other without facial hair and wearing a radiate crown, both being adorned with royal ribbons. This seal was initially dated to 300–350 CE and attributed to theKushano-Sasanians,but has been more recently attributed to the Hephthalites,and dated to the 5th–6th century CE.Paleographically, the seal can be attributed to the 4th century or first half of the 5th century.
• The "Seal of Khingila"shows a beardless ruler with radiate crown and royal ribbons, wearing a single-lapel caftan, in the name of Eškiŋgil (εϸχιγγιλο), which could correspond to one of the rulers named Khingila (χιγγιλο), or may be a Hunnic title meaning" Companion of the Sword ", or even" Companion of the God of War ".

Local populations under the Hephthalites

The Hephthalites governed a confederation of various people, many of whom were probably of Iranian descent, speaking an Iranian language.Several cities, such asBalkh,Kobadiyanand possiblySamarkand,were allowed to send regional embassies to China while under Hephthalite control.Several portraits of regional ambassadors from the territories occupied by the Hephthalites (Tokharistan,Tarim Basin) are known from Chinese paintings such as thePortraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,originally painted in 526–539 CE.They were at that time under the overlordship of the Hephthalites, who led the embassies to theSouthern Liangcourt in the early 6th century CE.A century later, under theTang dynasty,portraits of the local people of Tokharistan were again illustrated inThe Gathering of Kings,circa 650 CE.Etienne de la Vaissièrehas estimated the local population of each major oasis inTokharistanandWestern Turkestanduring the period to around several hundreds of thousands each, while the major oasis of theTarim Basinare more likely to have had populations ranging in the tens of thousands each.

• 
  Kabadiyanambassador to the Chinese court ofEmperor Yuan of Liangin his capitalJingzhouin 516–520 CE.Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,11th century Song copy. He accompanied the Hephthalite ambassador to China.
• 
  Kumedhambassador to the Chinese court ofEmperor Yuan of Liangin his capitalJingzhouin 516–520 CE.Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,11th century Song copy.
• 
  Ambassador fromKucha( quy tư quốcQiuci-guo), one of the mainTochariancities in theTarim Basin,visiting the ChineseSouthern Liangcourt inJingzhoucirca 516–520 CE.Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang,11th century Song copy.
• 
  Ambassadors fromKabadiyan( a bạt đàn ),Balkh( bạch đề quốc ) andKumedh( hồ mật đan ), visiting the court of theTang dynasty.The Gathering of Kings( vương hội đồ ), circa 650 CE

The Alchon Huns (formerly considered as a branch of the Hephthalites) in South Asia

Main article:Alchon Huns

Sanjeli

Eran

Gwalior

Sondani

Choti Sadri

Kura

Kausambi
(Toramanaseals)

Rīsthal

ALCHON
HUNS

HEPHTHALITES

NEZAK
HUNS

SASA-
NIANS

GUPTAS

VAKATAKAS

ZHANGZHUNG
KINGDOM

Northern Wei

Tocharians

class=notpageimage|

Find spotsof epigraphic inscriptions (red dots) indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500–530 CE.

TheAlchon Huns,who invaded northern India and were known there as "Hūṇas",have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of the Hephthalites, or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity, who may have been displaced by the settlement of the Hephthalites in Bactria.Historians such asBeckwith,referring toÉtienne de la Vaissière,say that the Hephthalites were not necessarily one and the same as the Hunas (Sveta Huna).According to de la Vaissiere, the Hephthalites are not directly identified in classical sources alongside that of the Hunas.They were initially based in theOxusbasin in Central Asia and established their control over Gandhara in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent by about 465 CE.From there, they fanned out into various parts of northern, western, and centralIndia.

In India, these invading people were calledHunas,or "Sveta Huna" (White Huns) inSanskrit.The Hūṇas are mentioned in several ancient texts such as theRāmāyaṇa,Mahābhārata,Purāṇas,and Kalidasa'sRaghuvaṃśa.The firstHunas,probablyKidarites,were initially defeated by EmperorSkandaguptaof theGupta Empirein the 5th century CE.In the early 6th century CE, theAlchon HunHunasin turn overran the part of the Gupta Empire that was to their southeast and had conquered Central andNorth India.Gupta EmperorBhanuguptadefeated the Hunas underToramanain 510, and his sonMihirakulawas repulsed byYashodharmanin 528 CE.TheHunaswere driven out of India by the kingsYasodharmanandNarasimhagupta,during the early 6th century.

Possible descendants

A number of groups may have descended from the Hephthalites.

• Avars: suggestions have been made that thePannonian Avarswere Hepthalites who went to Europe after their collapse in 557 CE, but this is not adequately supported by archaeological or written sources.
• Pashtuns: The Hephthalites may have contributed to the ethnogenesis ofPashtuns.Yu. V. Gankovsky, a Soviet historian on Afghanistan, stated: "Pashtun began as a union of largelyEast Iraniantribes, which became the initial ethnic stratum of the Pashtun ethnogenesis dating from the middle of the first millennium CE, and is connected with the dissolution of the Hephthalite confederacy. "According toThe Cambridge History of Iranthe descendants of Hephthalites arePashtuns.
  • Durrani: TheDurraniPashtuns of Afghanistan were called "Abdali" before 1747. According to linguistGeorg Morgenstierne,their tribal nameAbdālīmay have "something to do with" the Hephthalite.This hypothesis was endorsed by historianAydogdy Kurbanov,who indicated that after the collapse of the Hephthalite confederacy, they likely assimilated into different local populations and that the Abdali may be one of the tribes of Hephthalite origin.

Coin ofTegin Shah,self-described as "Iltäbar(sub-King) of the Khalaj ", dated to the year 728 CE, on theHephthalitemodel, imitating Sasanian kingPeroz I(438-457).

• Khalaj: TheKhalaj peopleare first mentioned in the 7th–9th centuries in the area ofGhazni,Qalati Ghilji,andZabulistanin present-dayAfghanistan.They spokeKhalaj Turkic.Al-Khwarizmimentioned them as a remnant tribe of the Hephthalites. However, according to linguistSims-Williams,archaeological documents do not support the suggestion that the Khalaj were the Hephthalites' successors,while according to historianV. Minorsky,the Khalaj were "perhaps only politically associated with the Hephthalites." Some of the Khalaj were laterPashtunized,after which they transformed into the PashtunGhiljitribe.
• Kanjina: a Saka tribe linked to theIndo-IranianKumijisand incorporated into the Hephthalites. Kanjinas were possibly Turkicized later, asal-Khwarizmicalled them "Kanjina Turks". However,BosworthandClausoncontended that al-Khwarizmi was simply using "Turks" "in the vague and inaccurate sense".
• Karluks: (orQarlughids) were reported as settled in Ghazni and Zabulistan, present-day Afghanistan, in the thirteenth century. Many Muslim geographers identified "Karluks"Khallukh~Kharlukhwith "Khalajes"Khalajfrom confusion, as the two names were similar and these two groups dwelt near each other.
• Abdal is a name associated with the Hephthalites. It is an alternate name for theÄynu people.
  • According toOrhan Köprülü,Abdal of Turkeymight be descended from the Hepthalites.Albert von Le Coqmentions the relation between Abdals ofAdanaand Äynus ofEast Turkestan,by them having some common words, and by both referring to themselves as Abdals and speaking an exclusive language among themselves.Some Abdal elements can also be found in the composition ofAzerbaijanis,Turkmen (Ata,Chowdur,Ersary,Saryk), Kazakhs, Uzbek-Lokays,Turksand Volga Bulgars (Savirs).

Hephthalite rulers

• Akhshunwar,circa 458 CE
• Kun-khi, circa 484 CE
• Yandai Yilituo, circa 516 CE (only known from his Chinese name yếm đái di lật đà )
• Hwade-gang (only known from the archives of theKingdom of Rob).
• Ghadfar/Ghatifar, circa 567–568 CE.
• Faghanish(568-) (ruling inChaghaniyan)
• Nezak Tarkan(circa 650–710)

See also

• History of Afghanistan
• Huna people
• Kidarites(Red Huns)
• Alchon Huns
• Kushan Empire
• Xionites
• Nezak Huns
• Iranian Huns

Sources

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Further reading

• Dickens, Mark (2018)."Hephthalites (White Huns, Abdelai, Hayatila, Hua)".In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.).The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-866277-8.
• Grignaschi, M. (1980). "La Chute De L'Empire Hephthalite Dans Les Sources Byzantines et Perses et Le Probleme Des Avar".Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungarica.28.Budapest: Akademiai Kiado.
• Haussig, Hans Wilhelm (1983).Die Geschichte Zentralasiens und der Seidenstraße in vorislamischer Zeit.Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.ISBN3-534-07869-1.
• Morony, M. (1986). "ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2.pp. 203–210.
• Theophylaktos Simokates. P. Schreiner (ed.).Geschichte.

External links

• "The Ethnonym Apar in the Turkish Inscriptions of the VIII. Century and Armenian Manuscripts" Dr. Mehmet Tezcan.
• The Anthropology of Yanda (Chinese)pdf
• The Silkroad Foundation
• Eliot, Charles Norton Edgcumbe(1911)."Ephthalites".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 9 (11th ed.). pp. 679–680.
• Columbia Encyclopedia: Hephthalites
• Hephthalite coins
• Hephthalite History and Coins of the Kashmir Smast Kingdom- Waleed Ziadat theWayback Machine(archived 27 October 2009)
• The Hephthalites of Central Asia – by Richard Heli(long article with a timeline)
• The Hephthalitesat theWayback Machine(archived 9 February 2005) Article archived from the University of Washington's Silk Road exhibition – has a slightly adapted form of the Richard Heli timeline.
• (pdf)The Ethnonym Apar in the Turkish Inscriptions of the VIII. Century and Armenian Manuscripts – Mehmet Tezcan
• Records Relevant to the Hephthalites in Ancient Chinese Historical Works,collected by Yu Taishan (2016).