Lâm Ấp
Kingdom of Lâm Ấp Lâm ấp quốc | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 192–629 | |||||||||
 Lâm Ấp inc.400 AD | |||||||||
| Capital | Kandarapura Simhapura(disputed) | ||||||||
| Common languages | Cham,Sanskrit | ||||||||
| Religion | ChamFolk religion Buddhism Hinduism(After 380) | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| King of Lâm Ấp | |||||||||
• 192–220 | Sri Mara | ||||||||
• 572–629 | Sambhuvarman | ||||||||
| Historical era | Classical Antiquity | ||||||||
• Established | 192 | ||||||||
• BecomingChampa | 629 | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Vietnam | ||||||||
| History ofChampa |
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| Timeline |
Lâm Ấp(Vietnamese pronunciation ofMiddle ChineseLâm ấp *liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚,>standard Chinese:Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of the earliest recordedChampakingdoms. The name Linyi however had been employed by official Chinese histories from 192 to even 758 AD to describe a particular early Champa kingdom located north of theHải Vân Pass.The ruins of its capital, the ancient city of Kandapurpura is now located in Long Tho Hill, 3 kilometers to the west of the city ofHuế.
Earlier western scholarship believed Linyi in Chinese records to refer toChampaitself, but Champa expansion northwards may have resulted in the Chinese applying the name Linyi to the Champa imperial cityTrà Kiệu(Simhapura) along withMỹ Sơn Sanctuaryand theThu Bồn Rivervalley around 600 AD.[1]
History[edit]
Lâm Ấp was founded byKhu Liên(Ōu Lián âu liên,EMC:*ʔəw-lian), a Cham leader who led a successful rebellion against theHan dynastyin Tượng Lâm (Xianglin) county (modern-dayThừa Thiên Huếprovince).[2]He might have been mentioned as Śrī Māra in theVõ Cạnh stelewhich was erected around 4th century AD. During theThree Kingdomsperiod of China, turmoil plagued the region ofJiaozhou.In 248, Lâm Ấp force invaded from the south, seized most ofRinan,and marched on intoJiuzhen,provoking major uprisings there and inJiaozhi.One Jiaozhi rebel commanded thousands and invested several walled towns beforeWuofficials got him to surrender.[3]The maternal grandson of Khu Liên,Phạm Hùngattacked Jiaozhou with aid fromFunan.[4]
In the early period ofJin dynasty,the imperial court favored the southern trade networks with the prosperous kingdoms ofFunanand Lâm Ấp. Along with this brief peacetime "boom" in the southern trade, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed some autonomy from China until the 320s.[5]Frustrated by the difficulty of trade, Lâm Ấp itself resorted from 323 to seaborne raids on northern ports in Jiaozhou.[5]In 347, kingFan Wen( phạm văn ) attacked Jin-controlled Jiaozhou with 40–50,000 troops. In 399,Phạm Hồ Đạt(Fàn Húdá) orBhadravarman I(r. 380?–413?) tried to seize the coast of Jiaozhou and Rinan, and was driven back by Du Yian, the Chinese governor of Jiao.[6]In 413, he attacked Jiao again, but was defeated, captured and beheaded by the Governor of Jiaozhou, Du Xuedu. His sonGaṅgārājaor Fan Dizhen/Phạm Địch Chớn soon abdicated the throne and went on pilgrimage to theGangesriver in India, although that might be two different persons. In 420,Phạm Dương Mại I(r.?–421) launched a new attack against the Jin, but was driven back and more than half of Lâm Ấp's people were slaughtered.[7]In 431, his sonPhạm Dương Mại II(r. 421–446) again attacked, but again was driven back. The next year, Phạm Dương Mại II sent an embassy to the court ofLiu Songasking for the appointment of Prefect ofJiao,which was declined.[6]He then turned against theKhmersand annexed the Khmer district ofPanduranga.[8]
In February 446, theLiu Song dynastyled by Tan Hezhi invaded Lâm Ấp, captured Lâm Ấp's capital (near modernHuế). The Chinese attackers plundered its eight temples and treasury, carrying off 100,000 pounds of gold.[9][7]Despite that, the revived Lâm Ấp was flourishing on the ever more lucrative passing sea trade.[9]
The destruction of Lâm Ấp capital inHuếpaved the way for the subsequent emergence of several Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms south of Lâm Ấp that their connections are remaining unclear, and the country fell into chaos.[10]South of Lam Ap there was the Kingdom ofXitu(Western Citadel) in theThu Bồn Rivervalley, and Chinese histories told that a refugee fromFunan,Jiu Choulou, who "collaborated with the rebels, conquered Linyi and proclaimed himself king" or a usurper named Bhadravarman/Fan Dānggēnchún phạm đương căn thuần fromXituthat assassinated the current king because he was the head of the lineage of king Wéndí văn địch or Manorathavarman in 490 AD, acknowledged by the Chinese in the next year. By 530, a descendant of king Wendi,Rudravarman I(r. 529–572), was recognized as king of Linyi by the ChineseLiang dynasty.
In 534,Rudravarman Isent an embassy to China. In 543, he attackedLý Bônin Jiaozhou who was in revolt against the Liang dynasty but was defeated by Lý Bôn's general Phaum Tu. In 595,Sambhuvarman(r. 572–629) sent a tribute gift to theSui dynasty.In 605 Yang Chien ordered Liu Fang toinvade Lâm Ấp.Chinese troops captured the Cham capital ofTrà Kiệu,plundered the city. While returning to China, Liu Fang and his army were decimated by diseases.[11]
Since 629, the Chams had used the name "Champa" (Vietnamese:Chăm Pa) to refer their state.[12][1]Sambhuvarman's sonKandarpadharma(r. 629–640) was the first Cham king officially to offer the titleśrī campeśvara(Lord of Campa) ofCampādeśa(the country of Champa). However official Chinese historical texts maintained to usage of the name Linyi for a while, until the last Linyi mission to the Tang court in 749 was reported having been sent by a ruler named Lútuóluó lư đà la, or perhapsRudravarman II(r. 741–758), but is still blunder in some extent.
From the mid-8th century, Chinese xenonym for Champa had changed from Linyi toHuánwáng( hoàn vương ), an area that likely located in the north of the realm.
By the 9th century Zhànchéng chiêm thành (MC:*tɕiam-dʑiajŋ) had been become the official Chinese designation for Champa, makes it clear that Champa was directly former Linyi, although there were earlier Chinese Buddhist pilgrimsXuanzangandYijingmentions of "Champa" in the name "Zhàn Pó" chiêm bà. Historian Anton O. Zakharov anticipates that the Linyi/Lâm Ấp of Chinese and Vietnamese histories and the center of Cham kingdom in Cham history are seemed unlikely to be related.
Linyi and Champa theory[edit]
Recent academics, tracing from the work ofRolf Steinin 1947 with new archaeological and historical evidence, discard the early French scholarGeorges Maspero's classical narrative of 'a vividly unified Champa'.Michael Vickery,an outspoken critic of Maspero'sThe Champa Kingdom,expresses that there was never a single Champa in history and the linking of Linyi kings to Champa kings is an illusion. From 220 to 645, Chinese annals give almost the same title for rulers of Linyi: Fan phạm (MC:*buam’), that may be connected with the Khmer title poñ found in seventh centuryKhmer inscriptions.Vickery proposes that the Linyi (Huế) of what Chinese historians had described, was not the actual Champa or Chamic at all. Instead, Linyi's demographics might have been predominantlyMon-Khmer,perhaps the Vieto-Katuic ethnolinguistic branch. The Cham, originally fromTra Kieuand theThu Bồn Rivervalley, were expanding northward and absorbed the old Linyi during the fifth and sixth centuries AD. Chinese annalists, unaware of that Chamic northward expansion, maltreated the whole realm as Linyi but it was not. Only centuries later when the Chinese figured out Champa and the Cham, the polities had already developed to become important trade partners or established political ties with Imperial China.
Culture[edit]
The later capital of Lam Ap in theThu Bồn Rivervalley, Simhapura, was founded by King Bhadravarman in late-fourth century. Although there are disputes among historians and researchers about Tra Kieu, archaeologists, such as Yamagata (2007), believe that Lam Ap was early Champa, and Trà Kiệu symbolizes the state development of a unified Cham polity.[13]Thethird inscriptionof Bhadravarman is the oldest surviving text inCham languageand also any Southeast Asian language.[14]He was also the first known person to order the constructing of the first Śiva lingam, a symbol of Saivaism, in the region. His temple was reported having been destroyed by fire in the six century, and still remains today as one of oldest historical structures in Southeast Asia ever been built and used.[15]
Archaeological excavations recovered artifacts fromGo Cam,near Tra Kieu (Simhapura) dated from late second century AD to the third century show that early Lâm Ấp had a significant amount of Chinese influences before the Indianization.[16][17]These artifacts include some fragments of tiles and seal inscribed Chinese characters "Seal of the Envoy of the Yellow God,"[18]however they might be artifacts left by the previous HanRinangovernment.[19]It appears that early Champa also might have been a commercial center, with Roman/Mediterranean and Indian ware sherds, blue glass cullet, glass jewelry rediscovered among Chinese sealings, roof tiles, mirrors, coins, daggers, silk, and pottery.[20]
From the third to fifth centuries, there were dozens of small Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms popped up south of Hue to modern-dayPhan Rang.Stone sculptures of Cham folk divinities admixed with Hindu aesthetic dating from fifth to sixth centuries AD were found in those settlements.
Rulers[edit]
- Khu Liên192–220
- Phạm Hùng220–284
- Phạm Dật284–336
- Phạm Văn336–349
- Phạm Phật349–380
- Phạm Hồ Đạt380–413
- Gangaraja(Phạm Địch Chớn)?–?
- Manorathavarman?–?
- Gangarajavarman II (Phạm Địch Văn)?–420
- Phạm Dương Mại I421–431
- Phạm Dương Mại II431–446
- Jaya Jayavarman I (Phạm Thần Thành) 455–472
- Fan Danggenchun/Jiu Chouluo 472?–492?
- Phạm Chư Nông 492–498
- Phạm Văn Tẩn 498–510
- Jaya Devavarman(Phạm Thiên Khởi) 510–526
- Jaya Vijayavarman 526–529? ( bật thuế bạt ma,MC:*bit-tshwiajh-bɑt-mɑ)
- Rudravarman I 529–572
- Jaya Sambhuvarman (Phạm Phạn Chí) 572–629
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^abVickery 2009,p. 49.
- ^Higham 2014,p. 323.
- ^Kiernan 2019,p. 97.
- ^Coedès 1968,pp. 42–44.
- ^abKiernan 2019,p. 98.
- ^abAymonier 1893,p. 7.
- ^abHall 1981,p. 35.
- ^Chapuis, Oscar (1995-08-30).A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc.Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-0-313-29622-2.
- ^abKiernan 2019,p. 99.
- ^Miksic & Yian 2016,p. 159.
- ^Aymonier 1893,p. 8.
- ^Boisselier 1963,p. 87.
- ^Yamagata 2011,pp. 97–98.
- ^Coedès 1968,p. 48.
- ^Miksic & Yian 2016,p. 188.
- ^Glover 2011,p. 77.
- ^Yamagata 2011,pp. 96–98.
- ^Glover 2011,p. 73.
- ^Glover 2011,p. 60.
- ^Miksic & Yian 2016,p. 190.
Sources[edit]
- Aymonier, Etienne (1893).The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China).Oriental University Institute.ISBN978-1-14997-414-8.
- Boisselier, Jean(1963).La statuaire du Champa(in French). Paris, France: École Française d'Extrême-Orient.ASINB0014Y6TPQ.
- Coedès, George(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-824-80368-1.
- Glover, Ian (2011), "Excavations at Gò Cấm, Quảng Nam, 2000–3: Linyi and the Emergence of the Cham Kingdoms", in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.),The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art,Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 54–80
- Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981).History of South East Asia.Macmillan Education, Limited.
- Higham, Charles (2014).Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor.River Books.ISBN978-6-1673-3944-3.
- Kiernan, Ben (2019).Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present.Oxford University Press.
- Yamagata, Mariko (2011), "Trà Kiệu during the Second and Third Centuries CE: The Formation of Linyi from an Archaeological Perspective", in Lockhart, Bruce; Trần, Kỳ Phương (eds.),The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art,Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 81–101
- Maspero, Georges (2002).The Champa Kingdom.White Lotus Co., Ltd.ISBN978-9-74753-499-3.
- Miksic, John Norman;Yian, Goh Geok (2016).Ancient Southeast Asia.Routledge.
- Vickery, Michael (2009), "A short history of Champa", in Hardy, Andrew David; Cucarzi, Mauro; Zolese, Patrizia (eds.),Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam),NUS Press, pp. 45–61,ISBN978-9-9716-9451-7