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Lan Xang

Coordinates:19°N102°E/ 19°N 102°E/19; 102
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused withLanxiang.
For other uses, seeLancang (disambiguation).
Kingdom of Lan Xang
ອານາຈັກລ້ານຊ້າງ (Lao)
anachak lansang
1353–1707
Kingdom of Lan Xang (green) in 1400
Kingdom of Lan Xang (green) in 1400
CapitalLuang Prabang(1353–1560)
Vientiane(1560–1707)
Common languagesLao
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
GovernmentAbsolute monarchy
King
• 1353–1385
Fa Ngum
• 1373–1416
Samsenethai
• 1548–1571
Setthathirath
• 1637–1694
Sourigna Vongsa
• 1700–1707
Setthathirath II
Historical eraMiddle AgesandEarly Modern Period
• Founded byFa Ngum
1353
1479–1484
• Kingdom partitioned
1707
Population
• 1500
400,000
• 1600
319,000
• 1700
371,000
CurrencyLat,Hoi
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mueang
Khmer Empire
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang
Kingdom of Vientiane
Kingdom of Champasak
Principality of Phuan
Today part ofLaos
Vietnam
Thailand
Part ofa serieson the
History ofLaos
Muang city-states era
Muang Sua698–1353
Lan Xang era
Lan Xang1353–1707
Regional kingdoms era
Kingdom of Vientiane1707–1828
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang1707–1893
Muang Phuan1707–1899
Kingdom of Champasak1713–1904
Colonial era
Lao rebellion1826–1828
Haw wars1865–1890
Franco-Siamese crisis1893
French Protectorate of Laos1893–1953
Franco-Thai War1940–1941
Japanese puppet state1945
Free Lao Movement (Lao Issara)1945–1949
Independent era
Kingdom of Laos1946–1975
Laotian Civil War1953–1975
North Vietnamese invasion of Laos1958–1959
Anti-Communist Insurgency1975–2007
Lao People's Democratic Republic1975–1991
Laos after Soviet dominance1991–present
See also

Lan Xang([lâːnsâːŋ]) orLancangwas aLaokingdom that held the area of present-dayLaosfrom 1353 to 1707.[1][2]For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms inSoutheast Asia.The kingdom is the basis for Laos's national historic and cultural identity.[3][4]

Name

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Lān Xāng Hôm Khāois oneromanizationof theLaonameລ້ານຊ້າງຮົ່ມຂາວ([lâːnsâːŋhōmkʰǎːw]), meaning "the Million Elephants and theWhite Parasol".The kingdom's name alludes to the power of the king, his ties toLaotian Buddhism,and his army's countlesswar elephants.[5]Other romanizations includeLan Sang,Lane Sang,andLane Xang.[citation needed]The nameLáncāngis thepinyinromanizationof the kingdom'sChinesenameLan thương,still used for the upper stretches of the MekonginTibetandYunnan.

Other names for the kingdom include the ChineseNánzhǎng(Nam chưởng); theSanskritSrī Śatanāganayutaand thePaliSiri Satanāganahuta;theThaiLan Chang(ล้านช้าง) andLan Chang Rom Khao(ล้านช้างร่มขาว); theLannaLan Chang(ล้านจ๊าง) andLan Chang Hom Khao(ล้านจ๊างฮ่มขาว); the presentVietnamesenameVương quốc Lan Xangand the historical namesAi Lao(Ai lao),Vạn Tượng(Vạn tượng,"Ten Thousand Elephants" ), andNam Chưởng(Nam chưởng); theKhmerLean Cheang(លានជាង),Lean Damri(លានដំរី), orSrei Satneakonhot(ស្រីសតនាគនហុត); and theBurmeseLinzin(လင်းဇင်း).[citation needed]

Historical overview

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Origins

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The geography Lan Xang would occupy had been originally settled by indigenousAustroasiatic-speakingtribes, such asKhmuic peoplesandVietic peopleswhich gave rise to theBronze Agecultures inBan Chiang(today part ofIsan,Thailand) and theĐông Sơn cultureas well asIron Agepeoples nearXiangkhoang Plateauon thePlain of Jars,Funan,andChenla(nearVat PhouinChampasak Province).[6][7][8]

TheHan dynasty's chronicles of thesouthward expansion of the Han dynastyprovide the first written accounts ofTai–Kadai speakingpeoples orAi Laowho inhabited the areas of modernYunnanandGuangxi,China. TheTai peoplesmigrated south in a series of waves beginning in the 7th century and accelerated following theMongol conquest of Yunnan(1253–1256) into the northern reaches of what would become the kingdom of Lan Xang.[9][10]

The fertile northernMekongvalleys were occupied by theDvaravaticulture of theMon peopleand subsequently by theKhmer,where the principal city-state in the north was known then asMuang Suaand alternately asXieng Dong Xieng Thong"The City of Flame Trees beside the River Dong", (modern city ofLuang Prabang).[9][10]

With the rise of theSukhothai Kingdomthe principal city-states ofMuang Sua(Luang Prabang) and south to the twin cities ofVieng Chan Vieng Kham(Vientiane), came increasingly under Tai influence.[11]Following the death of the Sukhothai kingRam Khamhaeng,and internal disputes within the kingdom ofLan Na,bothVieng Chan Vieng Kham(Vientiane) andMuang Sua(Luang Prabang) were independent Lao-Taimandalasuntil the founding of Lan Xang in 1353.[12]

The Legends of Khun Borom

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The cultural memory of the early migrations and the mixing of Tai influence with the indigenous, Mon, andKhmer peopleswere preserved in the origin myths and traditions of Lan Xang. The cultural, linguistic, and political roots which highlight the commonality of these early legends can help to understand Lan Xang and its relations with neighboring kingdoms. TheNithan Khun Borum"Story ofKhun Borom"was central to these origin stories and formed the introduction to thePhongsavadanor court chronicles which were read aloud during auspicious occasions and festivals.[13]Throughout the history of Lan Xang the legitimacy of the monarchy was tied to the single dynasty ofKhun Lo,the legendary king of Muang Sua and son of Khun Borom.[14][15][16]

The Conquests of King Fa Ngum

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The traditional court histories of Lan Xang begin in theYear of the Nāga1316 (thenāgaa mythical serpent of the Mekong and a protector spirit of the kingdom) with the birth ofFa Ngum.[17]Fa Ngum's Grandfather Souvanna Khampong was king ofMuang Suaand his father Chao Fa Ngiao was the crown prince. As a youth Fa Ngum was sent to theKhmer Empireto live as a son of KingJayavarman IX,where he was given princess Keo Kang Ya. In 1343 King Souvanna Khampong died, and a succession dispute for Muang Sua took place.[18]

In 1349 Fa Ngum was granted an army known as the "Ten Thousand" to take the crown. At the time the Khmer Empire was in decline (possibly from an outbreak of theBlack Deathand the combined influx ofTai peoples),[18]both Lanna and Sukhothai had been established in what had been Khmer territory, and the Siamese were growing in the area of theChao Phraya Riverwhich would become theAyutthaya Kingdom.[19]The opportunity for the Khmer was to create a friendly buffer state in an area they could no longer effectively control with only a moderately sized military force.

Fa Ngum's campaign started in southern Laos, taking the towns and cities in the region around Champasak and moving northward through Thakek andKham Muangalong the middleMekong.From his position on the middleMekong,Fa Ngum sought assistance and supply fromVientianein attacking Muang Sua, which they refused. However, Prince Nho ofMuang Phuan(Muang Phoueune) offered assistance and vassalage to Fa Ngum for assistance in a succession dispute of his own and help in securing Muang Phuan fromĐại Việt.Fa Ngum agreed and quickly moved his army to take Muang Phuan and then on to takeXam Neuaand several smaller towns of Đại Việt.[20][21]

The Vietnamese kingdom ofĐại Việt,concerned with their rivalChampato the south sought a clearly defined border with the growing power of Fa Ngum. The result was to use theAnnamite Rangeas both a cultural and territorial barrier between the two kingdoms. Continuing his conquests Fa Ngum turned toward theSip Song Chau Taialong theRedandBlack Rivervalleys, which were heavily populated withLao.Having secured a sizable force of Lao from each territory under his domain Fa Ngum moved down theNam Outo takeMuang Sua.Despite three attacks the King of Muang Sua, who was Fa Ngum's uncle, was unable to deter the size of Fa Ngum's army and committed suicide rather than be taken alive.[20][21]

In 1353 Fa Ngum was crowned,[22]: 225 and named his KingdomLan Xang Hom Khao"The Land of a Million Elephants and the White Parasol", Fa Ngum continued his conquests to secure the areas around theMekongby moving to take Sipsong Panna (modernXishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture) and began moving south to the borders of Lanna along theMekong.King Phayu of Lanna raised an army which Fa Ngum overwhelmed atChiang Saen,forcing Lanna to cede some its territory and provide valuable gifts in exchange for mutual recognition. Having secured his immediate borders Fa Ngum returned toMuang Sua.[20][21]

In 1351Uthong,who was married to a daughter of the Khmer King Suphanburi, founded the city ofAyutthaya.However, the remains of the Khmer Empire were in direct conflict with the growing power of Ayutthaya and the two became rivals rather than allies. Throughout the 1350s Ayutthaya expanded over western Khmer territories and theKhorat Plateau.In 1352Angkorwas attacked by Ayutthaya in a failed attempt to take the capital.[23]

Vientianeremained independent and powerful, and the growing power of Ayutthaya threatened regional stability. In 1356 Fa Ngum marched south to takeVientianefor failing to support his earlier advance onMuang Sua.In 1357 he tookVientianeand the surrounding plains, and marched south to assertLaocontrol over the areas seized by Ayutthaya. Fa Ngum moved across theKhorat Plateautaking the major cities along theMunandChi Riversand moving as far south asRoi Et.[24]

In Roi Et, Fa Ngum directly challenged Ayutthaya, which acknowledged Lan Xang's control over theKhorat Plateau.Uthong sent 100 elephants, gold, silver, over 1,000 pieces of ivory and betrothed his daughter Nang Keo Lot Fa to be a second wife to Fa Ngum.[24]By 1357 Fa Ngum had established themandalafor the Kingdom of Lan Xang which extended from the borders of the Sipsong Panna with China[2][1]south toSamborbelow theMekongrapids atKhong Island,and from the Vietnamese border along theAnnamite Rangeto the western escarpment of theKhorat Plateau.[25]It was thus one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia.

King Samsenthai and Queen Maha Devi

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Fa Ngum again led Lan Xang to war in the 1360s against Sukhothai, in which Lan Xang was victorious in defense of their territory but gave the competing court factions and the war weary population a justification to depose Fa Ngum in favor of his sonOun Huean.Fa Ngum became an exile inMuang Nan,where he died between 1373 and 1390.[26]

In 1371, Oun Huean was crowned asKing Samsenthai(King of 300,000 Tai) a carefully chosen name for the Lao-Khmer prince, which showed preference for the Lao-tai population he governed over theKhmerfactions at court. Samenthai consolidated the gains of his father, and fought back Lanna inChiang Saenduring the 1390s. In 1402 he received formal recognition for Lan Xang from theMing Empirein China.[26]

Mainland Southeast Asia in the early 15th century
Teal:Lan Xang
Purple:Lan Na
Orange:Sukhothai Kingdom
Blue Violet:Ayutthaya Kingdom
Red:Khmer Empire
Yellow:Champa
Blue:Đại Việt
Lan Xang and Mainland Southeast Asia in 1540

In 1416, at the age of sixty,Samsenthaidied and was succeeded by his songLan Kham Daeng.The Viet Chronicles record that during the reign ofLan Kham Daengin 1421 theLam Sơn Uprisingtook place underLê Lợiagainst theMing,and sought Lan Xang's assistance. An army of 30,000 with 100 elephant cavalry was dispatched, but instead sided with the Chinese.[27][28]

The death ofLan Kham Daengushered in a period of uncertainty andregicide.From 1428 to 1440 seven kings ruled Lan Xang; all were killed by assassination or intrigue guided by a Queen known only by her title asMaha Devior asNang Keo Phimpha"The Cruel". It is possible that from 1440 to 1442 she ruled Lan Xang as the first and only female leader, before being drowned in the Mekong in 1442 as an offering to thenaga.In 1440Vientianerevolted, but despite the years of instability the capital atMuang Suawas able to suppress the rebellion. Aninterregnumbegan in 1453 and ended in 1456 with the crowning of King Chakkaphat (1456–1479).[29]

The White Elephant War with Đại Việt

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Main article:Vietnamese-Laotian War (1479–80)

In 1448 during the disorder of theMaha Devi,Muang Phuan and some areas along theBlack Riverwere annexed by the kingdom ofĐại Việtand several skirmishes took place against Lanna along theNan River.[30]In 1471Emperor Lê Thánh Tôngof Đại Việt invaded and destroyed the kingdom ofChampa.Also in 1471, Muang Phuan revolted and several Vietnamese were killed. By 1478 preparations were being made for a full-scale invasion of Lan Xang in retribution for the rebellion in Muang Phuan and, more importantly, for supporting theMing Empirein 1421.[31]

Around the same time, awhite elephanthad been captured and brought to King Chakkaphat. The elephant was recognized as a symbol of kingship throughout Southeast Asia andLê Thánh Tôngrequested the animal's hair to be brought as a gift to the Vietnamese court. The request was seen as an affront, and according to legend, a box filled with dung was sent instead. The pretext having been set, a massive Viet force of 180,000 men marched in five columns to subdue Muang Phuan, and was met with a Lan Xang force of 200,000 infantry and 2,000 elephant cavalry in support which was led by the crown prince and three supporting generals.[32][31]

The Vietnamese forces won a hard-fought victory and continued north to threatenMuang Sua.King Chakkaphat and the court fled south towardVientianealong theMekong.The Vietnamese took the capital ofLuang Prabang,and then divided their forces to create apincer attack.One branch continued west, taking Sipsong Panna and threatening Lanna, and another force headed south along theMekongtowardVientiane.A contingent of Vietnamese troops managed to reach the upperIrrawaddy River(modern-dayMyanmar).[32]King Tilok and Lanna preemptively destroyed the northern army, and the forces aroundVientianerallied under King Chakkaphat's younger son Prince Thaen Kham. The combined forces destroyed the Vietnamese forces, which fled in the direction of Muang Phuan. Although numbering only about 4,000 men, the Vietnamese destroyed the Muang Phuan capital in one last act of vengeance before retreating.[33]

Prince Thaen Kham then offered to restore his father Chakkphat to the throne, but he refused and abdicated in favor of his son who was crowned as Suvanna Balang (The Golden Chair) in 1479. The Vietnamese would not invade the unified Lan Xang for the next 200 years, and Lanna became a close ally to Lan Xang.[34][35]

King Visoun and a Flowering of Culture

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Wat Visoun, as seen by Louis Delaportec. 1867

Through subsequent kings Lan Xang would repair the damage of the war with Đại Việt, which led to a blossoming of culture and trade.King Visoun(1500–1520) was a major patron of the arts and during his reign the classical literature of Lan Xang was first written.[36]TheTheravada Buddhistmonks and monasteries became centers of learning and thesanghagrew in both cultural and political power. TheNithan Khun Borom(Story ofKhun Borom) first appeared in written form, along with several transcriptions of theJataka Taleswhich recall previous lives of theBuddha.TheTripitakawas transcribed fromPalitoLao,and the Lao version of theRamayanaorPra Lak Pra Lamwas also written.[37]The earliest and continuously used Theravada temple,Wat Visounwas built in 1513 by King Visoun.[38]

Epic poems were written along with treatises on medicine, astrology and law. Laocourt musicwas also systematized and the classical court orchestra took shape.King Visounalso sponsored several major temples or "wats" throughout the country. He chose thePhra Banga standing image of theBuddhain themudraor position of "dispelling fear" to be thepalladiumof Lan Xang.[37]ThePhra Banghad been brought by Fa Ngum's Khmer wife Keo Kang Ya fromAngkoras a gift from her father. The image is traditionally believed to have been forged inCeylon,which was the center of theTherevada Buddhisttradition and was made ofthongan alloy of gold and silver.[39][40]

ThePhra Banghad been kept inVientianeuntil that time, in part because of the strength of the traditionalanimistbeliefs inMuang Sua.[41]ThePhra Bangimage was so revered that the capital city was renamed in its honor fromMuang SuatoLuang Prabang.[a]King Visoun,his sonPhotisarath,his grandsonSetthathirath,and his great grandson Nokeo Koumane would provide Lan Xang with a succession of strong leaders who were able to preserve and restore the kingdom despite tremendous international challenges in the years ahead.

Wat Visoun, Luang Prabang

Lanna and war with Ayutthaya

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KingPhotisarath(1520–1550) was one of the great kings of Lan Xang, he took Nang Yot Kham Tip from Lanna as his queen as well as lesser queens from Ayutthaya, andLongvek.[42]Photisarath was a devout Buddhist, and declared it as the state religion Lan Xang. In 1523 he requested a copy of theTripiṭakafrom King Kaeo in Lanna, and in 1527 he abolishedspirit worshipthroughout the kingdom. In 1532 the period of peace ended for Lan Xang when Muang Phuan rebelled and took Photisarath two years to fully suppress.[43][44][45]

In 1533 he moved his court toVientiane,the commercial capital of Lan Xang which was located on the floodplains of theMekongbelow the capital atLuang Prabang.Vientiane was the principal city of Lan Xang, and lay at the confluence of trade routes, but that access also made it the focal point for invasion from which it was difficult to defend. The move allowed Photisarath to better administer the kingdom and to respond to the outlying provinces which bordered the Đại Việt,Ayutthayaand the growing power ofBurma.[43][44][45]

In 1539 he made a pilgrimage toSikhottabongand he also made improvements toThat Phanomto reinforce Lan Xang's southern regional power. Also in 1539 Photisarath accepted aThainoble who was seeking asylum from KingChairachaof Ayutthaya for a failed rebellion. The incident resulted in a series of full-scale invasion of Lan Xang which was soundly defeated atSala Khamin 1540.[43][44][45]

Lanna had a series of internal succession disputes throughout the 1540s. The weakened kingdom was invaded first by theBurmeseand then in 1545 by Ayutthaya. Both attempted invasions were repulsed although significant damage had been done in the surrounding countryside. Lan Xang dispatched reinforcements to support their allies in Lanna. In response, Chairacha set out at the head of a second army in 1547 to takeChiang Maiwhere he was again defeated and forced into full retreat to Ayutthaya, where he died almost immediately upon his return.[46]

The succession disputes in Lanna continued, but the position of Lanna between the aggressive states of Burma and Ayutthaya necessitated that the kingdom be brought back to order. In recognition for his assistance against Ayutthaya, and his strong familial ties to Lanna, King Photisarath was offered the throne of Lanna for his son PrinceSetthathirath,who in 1547 was crowned King in Chiang Mai. Lan Xang was at the height of their political power, with Photisarath as King of Lan Xang and Setthathirath his son as King ofLanna.In the elaborate court ceremony recorded in theChiang Mai Chronicles,Setthathirath took possession of theEmerald Buddhaas his personalpalladium(which would later become the palladium of Vientiane) and was given the princesses Nang Thip and Nang Tonkham as queens.[47]

The peace would not last long. In 1548, theBurmese invaded Ayutthayabut failed to take the capital; that same year Photisarath was approached by Burma with offers of an alliance. Photisarath neither accepted the alliance, nor did he support Ayutthaya which had unsuccessfully tried to invade Lan Xang only eight years earlier. In 1550 Photisarath returned to Luang Prabang, but was killed in an accident while riding an elephant in front of the fifteen international delegations which were seeking an audience.[48]

King Setthathirath and the Burmese invasions

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Statue of King Sai Setthathirath atPha That Luang,Vientiane

In 1548King Setthathirath(as King of Lanna) had takenChiang Saenas his capital.Chiang Maistill had powerful factions at court, and the threats fromBurmaand Ayutthaya were growing. Following the untimely death of his father, King Setthathirath left Lanna leaving his wife asregent.Arriving in Lan Xang, Setthathirath was crowned as King of Lan Xang. The departure emboldened the rival factions at court, who in 1551 crownedChao Mekutias king of Lanna.[49]

In 1553 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna but was defeated. Again in 1555 King Setthathirath sent an army to retake Lanna at the command of Sen Soulintha, and managed to take Chiang Saen. For his success, Sen Soulintha was given the titleLuxai(Victorious) and offered one of his daughters to King Setthathirath. In 1556 Burma, underKing Bayinnaunginvaded Lanna. King Mekuti of Lanna surrendered Chiang Mai without a fight, but was reinstated as a Burmese vassal under military occupation.[50][51]

In 1560, King Setthathirath formally moved the capital of Lan Xang from Luang Prabang to Vientiane, which would remain the capital over the next two hundred and fifty years.[52]The formal movement of the capital followed an expansive building program which included strengthening city defenses, the construction of a massive formal palace and theHaw Phra Kaewto house theEmerald Buddha,and major renovations toThat Luangin Vientiane. In Luang Prabang,Wat Xieng Thongwas constructed perhaps in compensation for the loss of status as the former capital of Lan Xang, and inNakhon Phanommajor renovations were made toThat Phanom.[53]

In 1563, a treaty was signed between Lan Xang and Ayutthaya, which was sealed by the betrothal of Princess Thepkasattri (whose mother was QueenSuriyothaiofAyutthaya). However, KingKing Maha Chakkraphatinstead tried to exchange Princess Kaeo Fa, which was immediately rejected.[54]In the midst of the disagreement, theBurmese invaded northern Ayutthayawith the assistance ofMaha Thammarachathe royal viceroy and governor ofPhitsanulok.It was only then in 1564 that King Chakkraphat sent Princess Thepkasattri to Lan Xang along with a massive dowry in an attempt to buy back the broken alliance.[55]

While the procession was en route, Maha Thammaracha ambushed the princess and sent her to his overlords in Burma; she committed suicide shortly thereafter or en route. Facing the threat of a superior Burmese force, King Chakkraphat had lost a potential alliance with Lan Xang, the northern territories of Ayutthaya and his daughter. To prevent further incursions, King Chakkraphat became a vassal of Burma and had to deliver both himself and his sonPrince Ramesuanas hostages to King Bayinnaung leaving another sonPrince Mahinthrathiratas a vassal in Ayutthaya.[55]

The Burmese then turned north to depose King Mekuti of Lanna, who had failed to support the Burmese invasion of Ayutthaya in 1563.[56][57]When Chiang Mai fell to the Burmese, a number of refugees fled to Vientiane and Lan Xang. King Setthathirath, realizing that Vientiane could not be held against a prolonged siege, ordered the city to be evacuated and stripped of supplies. When the Burmese took Vientiane they were forced into the countryside for supplies, where King Setthathirath had organizedguerrillaattacks and small raids to harass the Burmese troops. Facing disease, malnutrition and demoralizing guerrilla warfare, King Bayinnaung was forced to retreat in 1565 leaving Lan Xang the only remaining independentTaikingdom.[58][59]

Covert plans

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See also:Burmese–Siamese War (1568–70)
Wat Xieng Thong,Luang Prabang

In 1567, King Mahinthrathirat approached King Setthathirath with covert plans for Ayutthaya to rebel against Burma by launching a counterattack against Mahathammarachathirat in Phitsanulok. The plan would involve an overland invasion from Lan Xang with assistance from the royal navy in Ayutthaya passing up theNan River.Mahathammarachathirat was in Burma at the time, and Maha Chakkraphat had been allowed to return to Ayutthaya as Burma was facing small rebellions in theShanareas.[60]

The plan was discovered and reinforcements were sent to Phitsanulok. Realizing Phitsanulok was too fortified, King Setthathirath withdrew his attack, but set up a devastating counter ambush on his retreat to Vientiane in which five pursuing Burmese generals were killed. Seizing on the weakness, King Chakkraphat ordered a second attack on Phitsanulok in which he successfully took the city, but could only briefly hold it having suffered repeated heavy losses.[60]

King Bayinnaung sent a massive invasion in 1568 in response to the uprising. In early 1569, the city of Ayutthaya was directly under threat and Vientiane sent reinforcements. The Burmese had planned on the reinforcements however and King Setthathirath fell into a trap.[61]After a two-day struggle the Lan Xang forces prevailed at the Pa Sak Valley nearPhetchabun,at which point one of the commanding generals fromNakhon Phanombroke south toward Ayutthaya. The Burmese rallied and were able to destroy the divided forces, and King Setthathirath had to retreat toward Vientiane.[62]

The Burmese then focused their attack on Ayutthaya and took the city. King Setthathirath upon reaching Vientiane ordered an immediate evacuation. The Burmese took several weeks to regroup and rest having taken Ayutthaya, which allowed Setthathirath to rally his forces and plan for prolonged guerrilla warfare. The Burmese arrived in Vientiane and were able to take the lightly defended city. Just as in 1565, Setthathirath began a guerrilla campaign from his base near theNam Ngum,northeast of Vientiane. In 1570 Bayinnaung retreated, Setthathirath counterattacked and more than 30,000 were taken prisoner, along with 100 elephants, and 2,300 pieces of ivory from the retreating Burmese.[62]

In 1571, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and Lan Na were Burmese vassals. Having twice defended Lan Xang from Burmese invasions, King Setthathirath moved south to conduct a campaign against theKhmer Empire.Defeating the Khmer would have greatly strengthened Lan Xang, giving it vital sea access, trade opportunities, and most importantly, European firearms which had been growing use since the early 1500s. TheKhmer Chroniclesrecord that armies from Lan Xang invaded in 1571 and 1572, during the second invasion King Barom Reacha I was slain in anelephant duel.The Khmer must have rallied and Lan Xang retreated, Setthathirath went missing nearAttapeu.TheBurmeseand Lao Chronicles record only the presumption that he died in battle.[63][64]

Setthathirath's general Sen Soulintha returned to Vientiane with the remnants of the Lan Xang expedition. He fell under immediate suspicion, and a civil war raged in Vientiane as a succession dispute took place. In 1573, he emerged as kingregentbut lacked support. Upon hearing reports of the unrest, Bayinnaung dispatched emissaries demanding the immediate surrender of Lan Xang. Sen Soulintha had the emissaries killed.[65]

Bayinnaung invaded Vientiane in 1574, Sen Soulintha ordered the city to be evacuated but he lacked the support of the people and the army. Vientiane fell to the Burmese. Sen Soulintha was sent as a captive to Burma along with Setthathirath's heir Prince Nokeo Koumane.[66]A Burmese vassal, Chao Tha Heua, was left to administer Vientiane, but he would rule only four years. TheFirst Taungoo Empire (1510–99)was established but faced internal rebellions. In 1580 Sen Soulintha returned as a Burmese vassal, and in 1581 Bayinnaung died with his son KingNanda Bayinin control of the Toungoo Empire. From 1583 to 1591 a civil war took place in Lan Xang.[67]

Lan Xang Restored

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Prince Nokeo Koumane had been held in theTaungoocourt for sixteen years, and by 1591 was about twenty years old. Thesanghain Lan Xang sent a mission toKing Nandabayinasking for Nokeo Koumane to be returned to Lan Xang as a vassal king. In 1591 he was crowned inVientiane,gathered an army and marched toLuang Prabangwhere he reunited the cities, declared Lan Xang independence and cast off any allegiance to theToungoo Empire.King Nokeo Koumane then marched toward Muang Phuan and then to the central provinces reuniting all the former territories of Lan Xang.[68]

In 1593 King Nokeo Koumane launched an attack against Lanna and the TaungooPrince Tharrawaddy Min.Tharrawaddy Min sought assistance fromBurma,but rebellions throughout the empire prevented any support. In desperation a request was sent to the Burmese vassal in AyutthayaKing Naresuan.King Naresuandispatched a large army and turned onTharrawaddy Min,forcing the Burmese to accept Ayutthaya as independent and Lanna as a vassal kingdom. King Nokeo Koumane realized he was outnumbered by the combined strength of Ayutthaya andLannaand called off the attack. In 1596, King Nokeo Koumane died suddenly and without an heir. Although he had united Lan Xang, and restored the kingdom to a point that it could repel an outside invasion, a succession dispute took place and a series of weak kings followed until 1637.[68]

The Golden Age of Lan Xang

[edit]
Seated Buddha figure from Lan Xang, 17th century

Under the reign ofKing Sourigna Vongsa(1637–1694) Lan Xang experienced a fifty seven-year period of peace and restoration.[69]During the period the Lan Xangsanghawas at the apex of power, drawing monks and nuns for religious study from throughoutSoutheast Asia.Literature, art, music, court dance experienced a revival.King Sourigna Vongsarevised many of the laws of Lan Xang and established judicial courts. He also concluded a series of treaties which established both trade agreements and boundaries between the surrounding kingdoms.[70]

In 1641, Gerritt van Wuysthoff with theDutch East India Companymade formal trade contacts with Lan Xang. Van Wuysthoff left detailed European accounts of trade goods, and establishedCompanyrelations with Lan Xang viaLongvekand theMekong.[70]

In 1642, Father Giovanni Maria Leria, aJesuit,was the firstCatholicmissionary to arrive in Lan Xang. After five years, he had very little success with conversions in the heavilyBuddhistcountry and returned toMacao,viaVietnamin 1647. He left an eyewitness description of the royal palace inVientianeduring the height of power in Lan Xang.[70]

The royal palace, of which the structure and symmetry are admirable, can be seen from afar. Truly it is of prodigious size, so large one would take it for a city, both with respect to its situation and the infinite number of people who live there. The apartments of the king are adorned with a magnificent portal and include a number of beautiful rooms along with a great salon, all made from incorruptible timber (teak) and adorned outside and inside with excellent bas-reliefs, so delicately gilded that they seem to be plated with gold rather than covered with gold leaf. From the king's apartments, on entering the very spacious courtyards, one sees first a great series of houses, all of brick and covered with tiles, where usually live the secondary wives of the king; and beyond them a line of more houses, built in the same symmetrical form for the officials of the court. I could write a whole volume if I tried to describe exactly all the other parts of the palace, its riches, apartments, gardens, and all the other similar things.

— Fr. Giovanni Maria Leria, (1663)[71]

The palace and the entire city of Vientiane were completely destroyed by the Thai during theLao-Siamese War of 1827–28.[72]

Pha That Luang and its place in Vientiane

Succession disputes

[edit]

The legal reforms which KingSourigna Vongsaput in place applied to the nobility and peasantry equally, and when the crown prince committed adultery with a palace attendant the king ordered his death. When Sourigna Vongsa died in 1694, he left two young grandsons (Prince Kingkitsarat and Prince Inthasom) and two daughters (Princess Kumar and Princess Sumangala) with claims to the throne. A succession dispute took place where the king's nephewPrince Sai Ong Hueemerged; Sourigna Vongsa's grandsons fled into exile in Sipsong Panna and Princess Sumangala to Champasak. In 1705, Prince Kingkitsarat took a small force from his uncle in Sipsong Panna and marched towardLuang Prabang.Sai Ong Hue's brother, the governor of Luang Prabang, fled and Kingkitsarat was made crowned as a rival king in Luang Prabang. In 1707 Lan Xang was divided and the kingdoms ofLuang PrabangandVientianeemerged. In 1713 theKingdom of Champasakemerged after a rebellion against Vientiane.[73]

The Lao kingdoms remained independent until 1779 when they then would become vassals to Siam. However, the kingdoms maintained their monarchical roots and a degree of autonomy.[74][75]For instance, Vientiane also had a tributary relationship with theVietnamesecourt atHuế,a relationship that, in the wake of the failedLaotian Rebellionfor independence (1826–1829) ofAnouvong,the last king of Vientiane, became acasus bellifor theSiamese–Vietnamese War (1831–34).This political situation would last until 1828 for the Kingdom of Vientiane and the late 19th/20th centuries for the Kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Champasak.

Political organization

[edit]

TheMekong Riverformed the political and economic arteries for the Kingdom of Lan Xang, so much so that theChinesename for the riverLán CāngLan thương is synonymous with the Lao kingdom. The river provided the means for the people, commerce and armies of Lan Xang to move between regional power centers, but also formed important geographic and defensive barriers. Major rapids formed the boundaries between the areas (and subsequent kingdoms) ofLuang Prabang,Vientianeand Champasak. TheKhone FallsandSi Phan Donregion were not navigable and provided a natural defense for Lan Xang from invasion coming upriver.[76]

The major cities of Lan Xang were located inLuang Prabang,Vientianeincluding the towns inNong Khai,Muang Phuan,Muang Sa or Muang Champa Nakhon (Champassack),Nong Khai,Sikhottabong(which in later periods would becomeThakhek,Nakhon Phanom,andSakon Nakhon), and Xiang Hun (Jinghong) (laterMuang Sing) in Sip Song Panna. These major cities were known as "muang" or "vieng" and were classified based on substantial fortifications and city walls, the Lao chronicles record five supporting cities, and ninety-seven border "muang."[77]

Supporting cities were found along theKhorat Plateau,and were based on trade or military importance. Say Fong was a Khmer trading post which became famous as a Lao cultural center for writing and arts. Vieng Khuk was mentioned by Van Wuysthoff, and was the "port city" for Vientiane, where trade betweenChinesemerchants took place before being destroyed in theLao-Siamese Warin 1827. South of Vientiane on theKhorat Plateau,Nong Bua Lamphu(or Muang Dan) was a major fortified city and traditionally administered by the Lao crown princes.[78]

Nong Bua Lamphuwas where the Lao defeated Ayutthaya in 1571, and was the site of a major battle againstKing Anouvongin 1827 when the city was totally destroyed by Thailand for its symbolic importance.Roi Eton the southernKhorat Plateauwas also heavily fortified, and had been founded by theKhmeras a major trading center between thePao,MunandChiRivers. Trade cities also existed atLoei,and Nong Han Noi on theSong Khram River.[78]

Themueangor "city-states" formed independent polities bound to the regional power of the king in a system known as amandala.Each city was headed by a city lord orchao mueang.Themandalaformed an important interdependent system of trade and tribute, which was based more on controlling resources and local populations than it was regional territories. Both wars and the production of rice required large scale labor forces. InSoutheast Asiait was common practice for an invading army to forcibly move a population to where they may be more accessible for taxation, conscription orcorveelabor. War was also an important means of generating wealth via tribute, and it was not uncommon in themandala systemto pay tribute to more than one regional power at a time.[79]

Society

[edit]

Lan Xang had ethnic diversity from trade and overland ethnic migrations. The multiplehill tribepeoples were grouped into the broad cultural categories ofLao Theung(which included most indigenous groups and theMon-Khmer) andLao Sung.TheLao Loumwere ethnically dominant and there were several closely relatedTaigroups which included theTai Dam,Tai Daeng,Tai Lu,Tai Yuan,andPhuan people.Perhaps because of the complicated ethnic diversity of Lan Xang the structure of society was fairly straightforward, especially in comparison to the neighboringThai peoplewith thesakdi nasystem or theKhmerwith their complexcaste systemand concepts of a divine kingship ordevaraja.[80]

Lao society was divided with the religious and secular authority of the royal family at the top, followed by nobles, and then the peasantry which included merchants, artisans, farmers, and general laborers.[81]Outside the system but above all were thesanghaor clergy, which provided not only social mobility but also a means for education.[82]The hill peoples orLao Theungwere outside the social system, along with thekhaor "prisoners" which were either taken in war or were working for criminal offences or debts.[79]Siamese,KhmerandShanformed the majority of the itinerant merchants, but there were small populations ofChineseand Vietnamese around major trading cities and in Muang Phuan.

Religion

[edit]
Monk repainting aNāgaat Pha That Luang

Theravada Buddhismwas the state religion of Lan Xang beginning withKing Photisarathin 1527, but had been a growing part of cultural legacy since Fa Ngum.[83]Within the villages, monasteries and towns of Lan Xang much of daily life revolved around the local temple orwat.The temples were centers of learning, and all males were expected to spend at least some part of their life in religious contemplation as a monk or novice. Kings could establish their legitimacy through supporting thesanghaand caring for or constructing new temples. Lan Xang had several powerfulBuddha imageswhich served aspalladiumsand spiritual symbols of the kingdom which included thePhra Bang,Phra Keo(the "Emerald" Buddha), Phra Saekham, and Phra Luk (the crystal Buddha of Champasak).[84]

Animismwas also one of the earliest, enduring and most important belief systems to the Lao-Tai groups, and the traditions and practices which began in Lan Xang have remained a vital part ofLaospirituality. Among the ethnic hill tribes of theLao SungandLao Theunganimismwas the dominant religion. TheLao Loumbelieved that ancient mythical serpents known asngueakinhabited major waterways, carving out the surrounding countryside and protecting key points along rivers or other bodies of water. The earliest name for theMekong RiverwasNam Nyai Ngu Luangor "Great River of the Giant Serpent."[85]

Ngueak, and thenāgawhich have been "tamed" byBuddhism,were believed to bring rains, or change shape, andnāgain particular were believed to be protection spirits which inhabited the cities ofVientianeandLuang Prabangin Lan Xang.Nāgahave endured as common motifs not only in myth and legend, but also on Lao temples, and silk weavings.[86]Nāgabecame a potent symbol of the kingdom of Lan Xang, so much so that when Thailand was forced to cede the territories which would becomeLaosin 1893, the kings of Thailand ordered new state seals which showed thegarudasymbol of Thailandfeeding on thenāgaof Lan Xang as a thinly veiled threat that the territorial loss had not been forgotten.[87]

The natural world was also home to a number of spirits which are part of theSatsana Phi.Phiare spirits of buildings or territories, natural places, or phenomena; they are also ancestral spirits that protect people, or can also include malevolent spirits. Thephiwhich are guardian deities of places, or towns are celebrated at festivals with communal gatherings and offerings of food. The spirits run throughout Lao folk literature.[88]

Phiwere believed to influence natural phenomena including human illness and thus thebacibecame an important part ofLaoidentity and religious health over the millennia.Spirit houseswere an important folk custom which were used to ensure balance with the natural and supernatural world. Astrology was also a vital part to understanding the natural and spiritual worlds and became an important cultural means to enforce social taboos and customs.

Economy

[edit]

Lan Xang was at the center of the overland trade routes inSoutheast Asia.In the north and northwest the overland trade routes fromBurmaandLannapassed through Lan Xang and Sipsong Panna (Xishuangbanna) towardYunnan,where they would join with theChinese Tea-Horse Road.Trade inLuang Prabangwould flow down theMekongtoVientianewhere it could then be transported overland to the headwaters of theNanandChao Praya rivers,or overland by ox cart or elephant over theKhorat PlateautoRoi Et.[89]

In the east theAnnamite Rangeformed a barrier, but the areas ofMuang Phuanand Xam Neua were regular points of commerce withVietnam.Trade fromThakhekand Champasak flowed down theMekongto theIsland of Khong,where the goods would then be portaged pastSi Phan Donand theKhone Fallsto join with theMekongagain and on to theKhmerin the south. Lao merchants (lam) would travel toLao TheungandLao Sungareas to exchange cloth, iron and silver for forest products, which would be floated via streams on bamboo rafts until they met with larger rivers.[89]

The Khone Falls, on the Mekong River.

The principle Lao agricultural crops wereglutinous riceand forest timber. Both were labor-intensive and were difficult to transport using the overland routes. Subsistence farming of root crops, bananas, gourds, cucumbers, yams, water buffalo, chickens, pigs and other domesticated animals was indigenous within Lan Xang.[90]Forest products were generally easier to transport and traded at a higher value. Elephants, ivory,benzoin resin(similar toFrankincense),lac(used in lacquer production),cardamom,beeswax, rhinoceros horn, along with porcupine quills and a variety of skins were commonly traded.[91]Of particular importance was the deer skin trade, which was in high demand inChinaandJapanand would reach its way to market having gone throughAyutthayantrade posts.[92]

Lao craftsmanship in silk production, weaving, gold, and especially silver was in high demand.[93]Villages would specialize in a particular craft or skill where they would manufacture tools, weapons, pottery, paper, jewelry, alcohol (lao-lao), elephant training or other unique trades. Iron ore was mined in Muang Phuan, tin and gems would also be mined in the north ofLuang Prabangor east along theAnnamite Range.[91]

Luang Prabangwas important as the religious and royal capital of Lan Xang, butVientianewas the largest most populous city (as well as the political capital beginning in 1560) and thus was of crucial commercial importance.Vientianewas originally aMoncity namedChandapurior "City of the Moon."[94]TheLaowould change the name toVieng Chanthaburi Sisattanakwhich means "Walled City of Sandalwood and a Million Nagas," later shortening it further to simplyVieng Chan(Vientiane).[95]SikhottabonginKhammouanandNakon Phanomwere also regional trading powers for central Lan Xang, just asRoi Etwas crucial for overland trade on theKhorat Plateau.

Decline

[edit]

TheLaodeveloped a distinct cultural, linguistic, religious, and political history during the four hundred-year period of Lan Xang.[96]The monarchy in Laos, which was a direct continuation from the traditions of Lan Xang would continue for seven hundred and fifty years through theKhun Lo Dynastyuntil 1975.[97]The decline of Lan Xang vis-à-vis their neighboring kingdoms was primarily due to geography, weak internal political structures, limited agricultural production, and the international arms trade.

Despite its relative size, Lan Xang was landlocked throughout its history. TheMekong River,which formed the major means of transportation in the kingdom, is navigable only along certain stretches. Surrounding Lan Xang were populous and powerful neighboring states:MingChina,Burma,Ayutthaya, Sukhothai, Lanna, the Đại Việt and the Khmer. Politically, afeudal systemof relatively independent mueang and nobles held regional autonomy.[98]

The succession of the monarchs was never based solely onprimogeniture,as both theSena(a council which could include senior royal family members, ministers, and generals) andSangha(senior members of the clergy) would choose a suitable successor based on both legitimacy and individual merit. The state bureaucracy as originally designed by Fa Ngum andSamsenthaiwas along a military structure which included some social mobility throughmeritocracy.Over time however social distinctions became more entrenched and the bureaucracy became based on hereditary title. The political institutions in Lan Xang created disputes and instability especially during royal successions.[98]

Trade and the economy of Lan Xang were based on high value commodities which could be easily transported using overland trade routes. Agricultural products like rice were too heavy for transport, and were both taxed and consumed by the regional mueang. The narrow valleys and climate along theMekongwas suitable for only certain varieties ofglutinous rice.The rice varieties were both low yield, and labor-intensive in comparison to thefloating ricegrown in Thailand.[99]Both Ayutthaya and Thailand profited immensely from the international rice trade with theChinese,Muslimand European traders.[100]

The demand for Lan Xang's high value trade commodities had to pass through intermediary kingdoms to reach world markets, thus for example whenJapanesedemand for forest products increased it was theSiamesewhich benefited from the trade.[101]Maritime trade routes became more important than theTea Routesin northern Lan Xang, the river trade along theMekongandChao Praya,or the overland trade withVietnam.Trade with Europeans for weapons began as early as 1511 in Ayutthaya, and by contrast the first European trade mission to Lan Xang was not until the 1640s.[102]Access to advanced European weapons proved decisive during the Burmese invasions of Lan Xang and would become more important in subsequent wars withVietnamand Thailand during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[103]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Luang PrabangNote on translation:"Bang"can be translated as"skinny/small"soLuang Prabangis"(City of the) Royal Skinny Buddha Image"

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^abStuart-Fox (1998),p. 40.
  2. ^abSimms (1999),p. 32.
  3. ^Simms (1999),p. ix-xiii.
  4. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 143–146.
  5. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 43–44.
  6. ^Solheim (1973),p. 145-62.
  7. ^Gorman (1976),p. 14–26.
  8. ^Higham (1996).
  9. ^abSimms (1999),p. 24–26.
  10. ^abStuart-Fox (2006),p. 6.
  11. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 45,51; 33–35.
  12. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 51.
  13. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 22–29.
  14. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 11–15.
  15. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 9–10.
  16. ^Evans (2009),p. 2.
  17. ^Simms (1999),p. 26.
  18. ^abCoe (2003).
  19. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 30–49.
  20. ^abcSimms (1999),p. 30–35.
  21. ^abcStuart-Fox (1998),p. 38–43.
  22. ^Coedès, George(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
  23. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 52.
  24. ^abSimms (1999),p. 36.
  25. ^Savada (1995),p. 8.
  26. ^abStuart-Fox (2003),p. 80.
  27. ^Simms (1999),p. 47–48.
  28. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 20–21.
  29. ^Stuart-Fox (1993).
  30. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 65.
  31. ^abSimms (1999),p. 51–52.
  32. ^abKiernan 2019,p. 211.
  33. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 66–67.
  34. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 21–22.
  35. ^Bush, Elliot & Ray (2011),p. 26.
  36. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 22–25.
  37. ^abStuart-Fox (1998),p. 74.
  38. ^Holt, J. C. (2009). p. 38.
  39. ^Tossa, Nattavong & MacDonald (2008),p. 116–117.
  40. ^Simms (1999),p. 37–39.
  41. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 53.
  42. ^Simms (1999),p. 56.
  43. ^abcSimms (1999),p. 56–61.
  44. ^abcStuart-Fox (1998),p. 74–75.
  45. ^abcViravong (1964),p. 50–51.
  46. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 78.
  47. ^Wyatt & Wichienkeeo (1995),p. 118–119.
  48. ^Simms (1999),p. 64–68.
  49. ^Wyatt & Wichienkeeo (1995),p. 120–122.
  50. ^Simms (1999),p. 71–73.
  51. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 78.
  52. ^Simms (1999),p. 73.
  53. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 61–72.
  54. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 80.
  55. ^abWyatt (2003),p. 81.
  56. ^Harvey 1925: 167–168
  57. ^Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 266–268
  58. ^Simms (1999),p. 73–75.
  59. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 81–82.
  60. ^abSimms (1999),p. 78–79.
  61. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 82.
  62. ^abSimms (1999),p. 79–81.
  63. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 72–73.
  64. ^Stuart-Fox (1998),p. 83.
  65. ^Simms (1999),p. 85.
  66. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 83.
  67. ^Simms (1999),p. 85–88.
  68. ^abSimms (1999),p. 88–90.
  69. ^Ivarsson (2008),p. 113.
  70. ^abcStuart-Fox (2006),p. 74–77.
  71. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 75.
  72. ^Askew, Long & Logan (2007).
  73. ^Viravong (1964).
  74. ^Wyatt (1963),p. 13–32.
  75. ^Ngaosyvathn (1998).
  76. ^Osborne (2001),p. 18–19; 136–154.
  77. ^Askew, Long & Logan (2007),p. 35.
  78. ^abAskew, Long & Logan (2007),p. 20–40.
  79. ^abTurton (2000),p. 16.
  80. ^Askew, Long & Logan (2007),p. 36.
  81. ^Evans & Osborne (2003).
  82. ^McDaniel (2008).
  83. ^Holt (2009),p. 10–15.
  84. ^Stuart-Fox (2008),p. 33.
  85. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 7.
  86. ^Bunce (2004),p. 247.
  87. ^Ngaosyvathn (2009),p. 55–56.
  88. ^Tossa, Nattavong & MacDonald (2008),p. 75–89.
  89. ^abStuart-Fox (1998),p. 49.
  90. ^Simms (1999),p. 24.
  91. ^abStuart-Fox (1998),p. 48–49.
  92. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 96.
  93. ^Simms (1999),p. 95.
  94. ^Simms (1999),p. 31.
  95. ^Stuart-Fox (2006),p. 53.
  96. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 76.
  97. ^Evans (2009),p. 17; 84.
  98. ^abWyatt (2003),p. 84–85.
  99. ^Golomb (1976),p. 1–15.
  100. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 109–110.
  101. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 93; 73.
  102. ^Wyatt (2003),p. 74.
  103. ^Ngaosyvathn (1998),p. 117–120.

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