Coastline paradox

An example of the coastline paradox. If the coastline ofGreat Britainis measured using units 100 km (62 mi) long, then the length of the coastline is approximately 2,800 km (1,700 mi). With 50 km (31 mi) units, the total length is approximately 3,400 km (2,100 mi), approximately 600 km (370 mi) longer.

Thecoastline paradoxis the counterintuitive observation that thecoastlineof alandmassdoes not have a well-defined length. This results from thefractal curve–like properties of coastlines; i.e., the fact that a coastline typically has afractal dimension.Although the "paradox of length" was previously noted byHugo Steinhaus,^[1]the first systematic study of this phenomenon was byLewis Fry Richardson,^[2]^[3]and it was expanded upon byBenoit Mandelbrot.^[4]^[5]

The measured length of the coastline depends on the method used to measure it and the degree ofcartographic generalization.Since a landmass has features at all scales, from hundreds of kilometers in size to tiny fractions of a millimeter and below, there is no obvious size of the smallest feature that should be taken into consideration when measuring, and hence no single well-defined perimeter to the landmass.Various approximationsexist when specific assumptions are made about minimum feature size.

The problem is fundamentally different from the measurement of other, simpler edges. It is possible, for example, to accurately measure the length of a straight, idealized metal bar by using a measurement device to determine that the length is less than a certain amount and greater than another amount—that is, to measure it within a certaindegree of uncertainty.The more precise the measurement device, the closer results will be to the true length of the edge. When measuring a coastline, however, the closer measurement does not result in an increase in accuracy—the measurement only increases in length; unlike with the metal bar, there is no way to obtain an exact value for the length of the coastline.

In three-dimensional space, the coastline paradox is readily extended to the concept offractal surfaces,whereby the area of a surface varies depending on the measurement resolution.

Discovery

Shortly before 1951,Lewis Fry Richardson,in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that thePortuguesereported their measured border withSpainto be 987 km (613 mi), but the Spanish reported it as 1,214 km (754 mi). This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.^[6]

The prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out $n$ equal straight-line segments of length $l$ withdividerson a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the "Richardson effect": the sum of the segments monotonically increases when the common length of the segments decreases. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.

The result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as $l$ approaches zero, the length of the coastline approachesinfinity.Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, theperimeterof a regularpolygoninscribed in acircleapproaches thecircumferencewith increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). Ingeometric measure theorysuch a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed arectifiable curve.^[7]Benoit Mandelbrotshowed that $D$ is independent of $ε$ .

Mathematical aspects

The basic concept oflengthoriginates fromEuclidean distance.In Euclidean geometry, a straight line represents theshortest distance between two points.This line has only one length. On the surface of a sphere, this is replaced by thegeodesiclength (also called thegreat circlelength), which is measured along the surface curve that exists in the plane containing both endpoints and the center of the sphere. Thelength of basic curvesis more complicated but can also be calculated. Measuring with rulers, one can approximate the length of a curve by adding the sum of the straight lines which connect the points:

Using a fewstraight linesto approximate the length of a curve will produce an estimate lower than the true length; when increasingly short (and thus more numerous) lines are used, the sum approaches the curve's true length. A precise value for this length can be found usingcalculus,the branch of mathematics enabling the calculation of infinitesimally small distances. The following animation illustrates how asmoothcurve can be meaningfully assigned a precise length:

Not all curves can be measured in this way. Afractalis, by definition, a curve whose perceived complexity changes with measurement scale. Whereas approximations of a smooth curvetendto a single value as measurement precision increases, the measured value for a fractal does not converge.

ThisSierpiński curve(a type ofspace-filling curve), which repeats the same pattern on a smaller and smaller scale, continues to increase in length. If understood to iterate within an infinitely subdivisible geometric space, its length tends to infinity. At the same time, theareaenclosed by the curvedoesconverge to a precise figure—just as, analogously, the area of an island can be calculated more easily than the length of its coastline.

As the length of a fractal curve always diverges to infinity, if one were to measure a coastline with infinite or near-infinite resolution, the length of the infinitely short kinks in the coastline would add up to infinity.^[8]However, this figure relies on the assumption that space can be subdivided into infinitesimal sections. The truth value of this assumption—which underlies Euclidean geometry and serves as a useful model in everyday measurement—is a matter of philosophical speculation, and may or may not reflect the changing realities of "space" and "distance" on the atomic level (approximately the scale of ananometer).

Coastlines are less definite in their construction than idealized fractals such as theMandelbrot setbecause they are formed by various natural events that create patterns instatistically randomways, whereas idealized fractals are formed through repeated iterations of simple, formulaic sequences.^[9]

Measuring a coastline

An animation showing the increasing length of the coastline of the island ofGreat Britainwith decreasing measuring units (coarse-graining length)

More than a decade after Richardson completed his work,Benoit Mandelbrotdeveloped a new branch ofmathematics,fractal geometry,to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.^[10]His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:^[11]

I coinedfractalfrom theLatinadjectivefractus.The corresponding Latin verbfrangeremeans "to break:" to create irregular fragments. It is therefore sensible... that, in addition to "fragmented"...fractusshould also mean "irregular".

In "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension",published on 5 May 1967,^[12]Mandelbrot discussesself-similarcurves that haveHausdorff dimensionbetween 1 and 2. These curves are examples offractals,although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975. The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals.^[13]

Empirical evidence suggests that the smaller the increment of measurement, the longer the measured length becomes. If one were to measure a stretch of coastline with ayardstick,one would get a shorter result than if the same stretch were measured with a 1-foot (30 cm)ruler.This is because one would be laying the ruler along a more curvilinear route than that followed by the yardstick. The empirical evidence suggests a rule which, if extrapolated, shows that the measured length increases without limit as the measurement scale decreases towards zero. This discussion implies that it is meaningless to talk about the length of a coastline; some other means of quantifying coastlines are needed. Mandelbrot then describes various mathematical curves, related to theKoch snowflake,which are defined in such a way that they are strictly self-similar. Mandelbrot shows how to calculate the Hausdorff dimension of each of these curves, each of which has a dimension $D$ between 1 and 2 (he also mentions but does not give a construction for the space-fillingPeano curve,which has a dimension exactly 2). The paper does not claim that any coastline or geographic border actuallyhasfractional dimension. Instead, it notes that Richardson's empirical law is compatible with the idea that geographic curves, such as coastlines, can be modelled by random self-similar figures of fractional dimension. Near the end of the paper Mandelbrot briefly discusses how one might approach the study of fractal-like objects in nature that look random rather than regular. For this he defines statistically self-similar figures and says that these are encountered in nature. The paper is important because it is a "turning point" in Mandelbrot's early thinking on fractals.^[14]It is an example of the linking of mathematical objects with natural forms that was a theme of much of his later work.

A key property of some fractals isself-similarity;that is, at anyscalethe same general configuration appears. A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how great any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with astochasticarrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts^[10]"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it".

There are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in "a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1". That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson effect is:^[15]

L(\varepsilon )\sim F\varepsilon ^{1-D},

where $L$ ,coastline length, a function of the measurement unit $ε$ ,is approximated by the expression. $F$ is a constant, and $D$ is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by $L$ .He gave no theoretical explanation, but Mandelbrot identified $D$ with a non-integer form of theHausdorff dimension,later the fractal dimension. Rearranging the expression yields

F\varepsilon ^{-D}\cdot \varepsilon,

where $Fε - D$ must be the number of units $ε$ required to obtain $L$ .The broken line measuring a coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate between the two and can be thought of as a band of width $2 ε$ . $D$ is its fractal dimension, ranging between 1 and 2 (and typically less than 1.5). More broken coastlines have greater $D$ ,and therefore $L$ is longer for the same $ε$ . $D$ is approximately 1.02 for the coastline ofSouth Africa,and approximately 1.25 for the west coast of Great Britain.^[5]For lake shorelines, the typical value of $D$ is 1.28.^[16]

Solutions

The coastline paradox describes a problem with real-world applications, including trivial matters such as whichriver,beach,border,coastlineis the longest, with the former two records a matter of fierce debate; furthermore, the problem extends to demarcatingterritorial boundaries,property rights,erosion monitoring,and the theoretical implications of ourgeometric modelling.To resolve this problem, several solutions have been proposed.^[17]These solutions resolve the practical problems around the problem by setting the definition of "coastline," establishing the practical physical limits of a coastline, and using mathematical integers within these practical limitations to calculate the length to a meaningful level of precision.^[17]These practical solutions to the problem can resolve the problem for all practical applications while it persists as a theoretical/mathematical concept within our models.^[18]

Criticisms and misunderstandings

The coastline paradox is often criticized because coastlines are inherently finite, real features in space, and, therefore, there is a quantifiable answer to their length.^[17]^[19]The comparison to fractals, while useful as a metaphor to explain the problem, is criticized as not fully accurate, as coastlines are not self-repeating and are fundamentally finite.^[17]

The source of the paradox is based on the way we measure reality and is most relevant when attempting to use those measurements to create cartographic models of coasts.^[19]Modern technology, such asLiDAR,Global Positioning SystemsandGeographic Information Systems,has made addressing the paradox much easier; however, the limitations of survey measurements and the vector software persist.^[17]Critics argue that these problems are more theoretical and not practical considerations for planners.^[17]

Alternately, the concept of a coast "line" is in itself a human construct that depends on assignment ofTidal datumwhich is not flat relative to anyVertical datum,and thus any line constructed between land and sea somewhere in theIntertidal zoneis semi-arbitrary and inconstant flux.Thus wide number of "shorelines" may be constructed for varied analytical purposes using different data sources and methodologies, each with a different length. This may complicate the quantification ofecosystem servicesusing methods that depend on shoreline length.^[20]

References

Citations

^Steinhaus, Hugo (1954)."Length, shape and area".Colloquium Mathematicum.3(1): 1–13.doi:10.4064/cm-3-1-1-13.The left bank of the Vistula, when measured with increased precision would furnish lengths ten, hundred and even thousand times as great as the length read off the school map. A statement nearly adequate to reality would be to call most arcs encountered in nature not rectifiable.
^Vulpiani, Angelo (2014)."Lewis Fry Richardson: scientist, visionary and pacifist".Lettera Matematica.2(3): 121–128.doi:10.1007/s40329-014-0063-z.MR 3344519.S2CID 128975381.
^Richardson, L. F. (1961). "The problem of contiguity: An appendix to statistics of deadly quarrels".General Systems Yearbook.Vol. 6. pp. 139–187.
^Mandelbrot, B. (1967)."How Long is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension".Science.156(3775): 636–638.Bibcode:1967Sci...156..636M.doi:10.1126/science.156.3775.636.PMID 17837158.S2CID 15662830.Archived fromthe originalon 2021-10-19.Retrieved2021-05-21.
^^a ^bMandelbrot, Benoit(1983).The Fractal Geometry of Nature.W. H. Freeman and Co. pp.25–33.ISBN 978-0-7167-1186-5.
^Richardson, Lewis Fry (1993). "Fractals". In Ashford, Oliver M.; Charnock, H.; Drazin, P. G.; et al. (eds.).The Collected Papers of Lewis Fry Richardson: Meteorology and numerical analysis.Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–46.ISBN 0-521-38297-1.
^Seekell, D.; Cael, B.; Lindmark, E.; Byström, P. (2021)."The Fractal Scaling Relationship for River Inlets to Lakes".Geophysical Research Letters.48(9): e2021GL093366.Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4893366S.doi:10.1029/2021GL093366.ISSN 1944-8007.S2CID 235508504.
^Post & Eisen, p. 550 (see below).
^Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe,Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science;Spring, 2004; p.424.
^^a ^bMandelbrot 1982,p. 28.
^Mandelbrot 1982,p. 1.
^Mandelbrot, B.(1967)."How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension"(PDF).Science.156(3775): 636–638.Bibcode:1967Sci...156..636M.doi:10.1126/science.156.3775.636.PMID 17837158.S2CID 15662830.
^"Dr. Mandelbrot traced his work on fractals to a question he first encountered as a young researcher: how long is the coast of Britain?": Benoit Mandelbrot (1967). "Benoît Mandelbrot, Novel Mathematician, Dies at 85",The New York Times.
^"What is the essence of a coastline, for example? Mandelbrot asked this question in a paper that became a turning point for his thinking: 'How Long Is the Coast of Britain'": James Gleick (1988)Chaos: Making a New Science,p.94.ISBN 978-0747404132.
^Mandelbrot 1982,pp. 29–31.
^Seekell, D.; Cael, B.; Lindmark, E.; Byström, P. (2021)."The Fractal Scaling Relationship for River Inlets to Lakes".Geophysical Research Letters.48(9): e2021GL093366.Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4893366S.doi:10.1029/2021GL093366.S2CID 235508504.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^fMcNamara, Gerard; Vieira da Silva, Guilherme (2023). "The Coastline Paradox: A New Perspective".39.Journal of Coastal Resources (1): 45–54.doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-22-00034.1.hdl:10072/421013.S2CID 255441171.
^Stoa, Ryan (15 Jun 2020). "The Coastline Paradox".Rutgers University Law Review.72(2).doi:10.2139/ssrn.3445756.S2CID 214198004.
^^a ^bSirdeshmukh, Neeraj (28 January 2013)."Mapping Monday: The Coastline Paradox".National Geographic.Retrieved25 November2023.
^Cereghino, P; et al. (2023)."Estimation of Typical High Intertidal Beach-Face Slope in Puget Sound".NOAA Fisheries.doi:10.25923/6ssh-tn86.Retrieved29 August2024.

Sources

Post, David G.,andMichael Eisen."How Long is the Coastline of Law? Thoughts on the Fractal Nature of Legal Systems".Journal of Legal StudiesXXIX(1), January 2000.
Mandelbrot, Benoit B.(1982)."II.5 How long is the coast of Britain?".The Fractal Geometry of Nature.Macmillan. pp.25–33.ISBN 978-0-7167-1186-5.

External links

"Coastlines"atFractal Geometry(ed. Michael Frame, Benoit Mandelbrot, and Nial Neger; maintained for Math 190a at Yale University)
The Atlas of Canada – Coastline and Shoreline
NOAA GeoZone Blog on Digital Coast
What Is The Coastline Paradox?–YouTubevideo byVeritasium

[1] Steinhaus, Hugo (1954)."Length, shape and area".Colloquium Mathematicum.3(1): 1–13.doi:10.4064/cm-3-1-1-13.The left bank of the Vistula, when measured with increased precision would furnish lengths ten, hundred and even thousand times as great as the length read off the school map. A statement nearly adequate to reality would be to call most arcs encountered in nature not rectifiable.

[2] Vulpiani, Angelo (2014)."Lewis Fry Richardson: scientist, visionary and pacifist".Lettera Matematica.2(3): 121–128.doi:10.1007/s40329-014-0063-z.MR 3344519.S2CID 128975381.

[3] Richardson, L. F. (1961). "The problem of contiguity: An appendix to statistics of deadly quarrels".General Systems Yearbook.Vol. 6. pp. 139–187.

[4] Mandelbrot, B. (1967)."How Long is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension".Science.156(3775): 636–638.Bibcode:1967Sci...156..636M.doi:10.1126/science.156.3775.636.PMID 17837158.S2CID 15662830.Archived fromthe originalon 2021-10-19.Retrieved2021-05-21.

[mandelbrot-5] Mandelbrot, Benoit(1983).The Fractal Geometry of Nature.W. H. Freeman and Co. pp.25–33.ISBN 978-0-7167-1186-5.

[6] Richardson, Lewis Fry (1993). "Fractals". In Ashford, Oliver M.; Charnock, H.; Drazin, P. G.; et al. (eds.).The Collected Papers of Lewis Fry Richardson: Meteorology and numerical analysis.Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–46.ISBN 0-521-38297-1.

[7] Seekell, D.; Cael, B.; Lindmark, E.; Byström, P. (2021)."The Fractal Scaling Relationship for River Inlets to Lakes".Geophysical Research Letters.48(9): e2021GL093366.Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4893366S.doi:10.1029/2021GL093366.ISSN 1944-8007.S2CID 235508504.

[8] Post & Eisen, p. 550 (see below).

[9] Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe,Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science;Spring, 2004; p.424.

[FOOTNOTEMandelbrot198228-10] Mandelbrot 1982,p. 28.

[FOOTNOTEMandelbrot19821-11] Mandelbrot 1982,p. 1.

[12] Mandelbrot, B.(1967)."How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension"(PDF).Science.156(3775): 636–638.Bibcode:1967Sci...156..636M.doi:10.1126/science.156.3775.636.PMID 17837158.S2CID 15662830.

[13] "Dr. Mandelbrot traced his work on fractals to a question he first encountered as a young researcher: how long is the coast of Britain?": Benoit Mandelbrot (1967). "Benoît Mandelbrot, Novel Mathematician, Dies at 85",The New York Times.

[14] "What is the essence of a coastline, for example? Mandelbrot asked this question in a paper that became a turning point for his thinking: 'How Long Is the Coast of Britain'": James Gleick (1988)Chaos: Making a New Science,p.94.ISBN 978-0747404132.

[FOOTNOTEMandelbrot198229–31-15] Mandelbrot 1982,pp. 29–31.

[16] Seekell, D.; Cael, B.; Lindmark, E.; Byström, P. (2021)."The Fractal Scaling Relationship for River Inlets to Lakes".Geophysical Research Letters.48(9): e2021GL093366.Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4893366S.doi:10.1029/2021GL093366.S2CID 235508504.

[McNamara2023-17] McNamara, Gerard; Vieira da Silva, Guilherme (2023). "The Coastline Paradox: A New Perspective".39.Journal of Coastal Resources (1): 45–54.doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-22-00034.1.hdl:10072/421013.S2CID 255441171.

[Stoa2020-18] Stoa, Ryan (15 Jun 2020). "The Coastline Paradox".Rutgers University Law Review.72(2).doi:10.2139/ssrn.3445756.S2CID 214198004.

[Sirdeshmukh1-19] Sirdeshmukh, Neeraj (28 January 2013)."Mapping Monday: The Coastline Paradox".National Geographic.Retrieved25 November2023.

[20] Cereghino, P; et al. (2023)."Estimation of Typical High Intertidal Beach-Face Slope in Puget Sound".NOAA Fisheries.doi:10.25923/6ssh-tn86.Retrieved29 August2024.

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v t e Fractals
Characteristics	Fractal dimensions Assouad Box-counting Higuchi Correlation Hausdorff Packing Topological Recursion Self-similarity
Iterated function system	Barnsley fern Cantor set Koch snowflake Menger sponge Sierpinski carpet Sierpinski triangle Apollonian gasket Fibonacci word Space-filling curve Blancmange curve De Rham curve Minkowski Dragon curve Hilbert curve Koch curve Lévy C curve Moore curve Peano curve Sierpiński curve Z-order curve String T-square n-flake Vicsek fractal Hexaflake Gosper curve Pythagoras tree Weierstrass function
Strange attractor	Multifractal system
L-system	Fractal canopy Space-filling curve H tree
Escape-time fractals	Burning Ship fractal Julia set Filled Newton fractal Douady rabbit Lyapunov fractal Mandelbrot set Misiurewicz point Multibrot set Newton fractal Tricorn Mandelbox Mandelbulb
Renderingtechniques	Buddhabrot Orbit trap Pickover stalk
Randomfractals	Brownian motion Brownian tree Brownian motor Fractal landscape Lévy flight Percolation theory Self-avoiding walk
People	Michael Barnsley Georg Cantor Bill Gosper Felix Hausdorff Desmond Paul Henry Gaston Julia Helge von Koch Paul Lévy Aleksandr Lyapunov Benoit Mandelbrot Hamid Naderi Yeganeh Lewis Fry Richardson Wacław Sierpiński
Other	"How Long Is the Coast of Britain?" Coastline paradox Fractal art List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension The Fractal Geometry of Nature(1982 book) The Beauty of Fractals(1986 book) Chaos: Making a New Science(1987 book) Kaleidoscope Chaos theory