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Lollardy

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In this 19th-century illustration,John Wycliffeis shown giving the Bible translation that bore his name to his Lollard followers.

Lollardy,also known asLollardismor theLollard movement,was aproto-ProtestantChristianreligious movement that was active in England from the mid-14th century until the 16th-centuryEnglish Reformation.It was initially led byJohn Wycliffe,[1]aCatholictheologian who was dismissed from theUniversity of Oxfordin 1381 forheresy.The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform ofWestern Christianity.They formulated their beliefs in theTwelve Conclusions of the Lollards.

Etymology

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Lollards' prison inLambeth Palace

Lollard,Lollardi,orLollerwas the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated (if at all) only inEnglish,who were reputed to follow the teachings ofJohn Wycliffein particular, and were energized by the translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th century, "lollard" had come to mean ahereticin general. The alternative, "Wycliffite", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background.

The term is said to have been coined by theAnglo-IrishclericHenry Crumpe,but its origin is uncertain. The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of theBishop of Worcesteragainst five "poor preachers",nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos.[2]According to theOxford English Dictionary,it most likely derives fromMiddle Dutchlollaerd( "mumbler, mutterer" ), from a verblollen( "to mutter, mumble" ). The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 14th century who were akin to theFraticelli,Beghards,and other sectaries similar to the recusantFranciscans.[2]

Originally the Dutch word was a colloquial name for a group of buriers of the dead during theBlack Death,in the 14th century, known asAlexians,Alexian Brothers or Cellites. These were known colloquially aslollebroeders(Middle Dutch for "mumbling brothers" ), orLollhorden,fromOld High German:lollon( "to sing softly" ), from their chants for the dead.[3]Middle Englishloller(akin to the verbloll,lull,the English cognate of Dutchlollen"to mutter, mumble" ) is recorded as an alternative spelling ofLollard,while its generic meaning "a lazy vagabond, an idler, a fraudulent beggar" is not recorded before 1582.[citation needed]

Two other possibilities for the derivation ofLollardare mentioned by theOxford English Dictionary:[4]

  • Latinlolium,a weedyvetch(tares), supposedly a reference to the biblicalParable of the Tares(Matthew 13:24–30);
  • the surname "Lolhard" of an eminent Franciscan preacher inGuyenne,who converted to theWaldensianway. The region of Guyenne was at that time under English dominion, and his preaching influenced pious lay English. He was burned atColognein the 1370s. Earlier, another Waldensian teacher, also named "Lolhard", was tried for heresy in Austria in 1315.[5]

Beliefs

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Map of Lollardy's influence. Areas of Lollardy's influence before the death ofRichard IIare in green. Areas where Lollardy spread in the 15th century are in red.

According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to the masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening.[6]

Eucharist

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With regard to theEucharist,Lollards such asJohn Wycliffe,William Thorpe,andJohn Oldcastle,taught a view of the real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as "consubstantiation"and did not accept the doctrine oftransubstantiation,as taught by the Roman Catholic Church.[7][8]"The Plowman's Tale",a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than theReal Presence:[9]

I say sothe thorowe trewe rede
His flesh and blode, through his mastry
Is there/ in the forme of brede
Howe it is there/ it nedeth not stryve
Whether it be subgette or accydent
But as Christ was/ when he was on-lyve
So is he there verament.[10]

[In modern English:]
I say the truth through true understanding:
His flesh and blood, through his subtle works,
Is there in the form of bread.
In what manner it is present need not be debated,
Whether as subject oraccident,
But as Christ was when he was alive,
So He is truly there.[11]

Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at theBlackfriars Councilof 1382. William Sawtry, a priest, was reportedly burned in 1401 for his belief that "bread remains in the same nature as before" afterconsecrationby a priest. In the early 15th century a priest named Richard Wyche was accused of false doctrine. When asked about consecration during his questioning, he repeated only his belief in the Real Presence. When asked if the host was still bread even after consecration, he answered only: "I believe that the host is the real body of Christ in the form of bread". Throughout his questioning he insisted that he was "not bound to believe otherwise than Holy Scripture says". Following the questioning, Wyche eventually recanted, after he was excommunicated and imprisoned.[12][13]A suspect in 1517 summed up the Lollards' position: "Summe folys cummyn to churche thynckyng to see the good Lorde – what shulde they see there but bredde and wyne?"[14][15]

Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents; it is the fourth of theTwelve Conclusionsand the first of theSixteen Points on which the Bishops accuse Lollards.It is discussed inThe Testimony of William Thorpe,theApology for Lollard Doctrines,[16]Jack Upland,andOpus Arduum.[17]

Denial of Sacraments and Sacramentals

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The Lollards did not believe that the church practices ofbaptismandconfessionwere necessary forsalvation.

Believing in auniversal priesthood,the Lollards challenged the Church's authority to invest or to deny the divine authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special status to the priesthood, Lollards thoughtconfessionto a priest was unnecessary since according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins. Lollards challenged the practice ofclerical celibacyand believed priests should not holdgovernment positionsas such temporal matters would likely interfere with their spiritual mission.

They considered praying to saints andhonouring of their imagesto be a form of idolatry. Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have noscriptural basis.They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings. They rejected the value ofpapal pardons.[18]

The Twelve Conclusions

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One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament withThe Twelve Conclusions of the Lollardsby posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means a central statement of belief of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas. The first Conclusion rejects the acquisition of temporal wealth by Church leaders, as accumulating wealth leads them away from religious concerns and towards greed. The fourth Conclusion deals with the Lollard view that theSacramentof the Eucharist is a debatable doctrine that is not clearly defined in the Bible. Whether the bread remains bread or becomes the literal body of Christ is not specified uniformly in the gospels. The sixth Conclusion states that officials of the Church should not concern themselves with secular matters when they hold a position of power within the Church, since this constitutes a conflict of interest between matters of the spirit and matters of the State. The eighth Conclusion points out the ludicrousness, in the minds of Lollards, of the reverence that is directed toward images of Christ's suffering. "If the cross of Christ, the nails, spear, and crown of thorns are to be honoured, then why not honour Judas's lips, if only they could be found?"[19]

Expensive church artwork was seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations.Iconswere also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshipping the icons more fervently than they worshipped God.

Vernacular Scripture

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Lollardy was a religion ofvernacular scripture.[18]Lollards opposed many practices of the Catholic church.Anne Hudsonhas written that a form ofsola scripturaunderpinned Wycliffe's beliefs, but distinguished it from the more radical ideology that anything not permitted by scripture is forbidden. Instead, Hudson notes that Wycliffe'ssola scripturaheld theBibleto be "the only valid source of doctrine and the only pertinent measure of legitimacy."[20]

Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible. Many attempted to distribute English copies; however, due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it was difficult to accomplish this goal.[21]

However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy (or vision impairment) as a defense against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of vernacular texts.[6]: 495 

Catholic practices

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Lollards did not observefasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church.Inheresyproceedings againstMargery Baxterit was presented as evidence that a servant girl foundbaconin a pot ofoatmealon the first Saturday ofLent.Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in anotherNorfolkcase against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten forEasterdinner when eating meat was forbidden.[22]

Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded asanathema.[23]

Lollards also had a tendency towardiconoclasm.

Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays.[6]

Foxe

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Sixteenth-centurymartyrologistJohn Foxereduced the main beliefs of Lollardy to four, to an extent eliding the Wycliffite doctrine ofdominium:

History

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Beginning of the Gospel of John from a pocket Wycliffe translation that may have been used by a roving Lollard preacher (late 14th century)

Although Lollardy was denounced as aheresyby the Catholic Church, initially Wycliffe and the Lollards were sheltered byJohn of Gauntand other anti-clerical nobility, who may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources of revenue from England's monasteries. TheUniversity of Oxfordalso protected Wycliffe and similar academics on the grounds of academic freedom and, initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their controversial views.

A primary religious opponent of the Wycliffites wasThomas Arundel,Archbishop of Canterbury,assisted by bishops likeHenry le DespenserofNorwich,whom the chroniclerThomas Walsinghampraised for his zeal.[25]

Peasants' Revolt

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Main article:Peasants' Revolt

Lollards first faced serious persecution after thePeasants' Revoltin 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants' leaders,John Ball,preached Lollardy. Prior to 1382, Wycliffite beliefs were tolerated in government as they endorsed inroyal superiorityto bishops.[clarification needed]However, the government and royals were hesitant, as they did not want to encourage subjects to criticize religious powers.[21]

After 1382, royalty and nobility found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to English society in general. The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the departure ofJohn of Gaunt(Duke of Lancaster, patron ofChaucerand protector ofJohn Wycliffe) who left England in 1386 to pursue theCrown of Castile.

Paul Strohm has asked: "Was the Lollard a genuine threat or a political pawn, agent of destabilising challenge, or a hapless threat of self-legitimizing Lancastrian discourse?"[26]

Lollard Knights

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A group of gentry active during the reign ofRichard II(1377–99) were known as "Lollard Knights" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of Wycliffe's claims.Henry Knighton,in his Chronicle, identifies the principal Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussell, Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peche (son ofJohn Pecheof Wormleighton), Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton.Thomas Walsingham's Chronicle adds William Nevil andJohn Clanvoweto the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to the soil whence they came. There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes; they were men of discretion, and unlike SirJohn Oldcastleyears later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. However, they displayed a remarkable ability to retain important positions without falling victim to the various prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers occurring during their lifetimes.

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Lollard Richard Wyche being burnt at the stake in 1440

Religious and secular authorities strongly opposed Lollardy. In eventual response to the revolting Lollards, the lawDe heretico comburendowas enacted in 1401 during the reign ofHenry IV;traditionally heresy had been defined as an error in theological belief, but this statute equated theologicalheresywithseditionagainst political rulers.[26]

By the early 15th century, stern measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground. One such measure was the 1410 burning at the stake ofJohn Badby,a layman and craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy. He was the first layman to suffercapital punishmentin England for the crime of heresy.

Oldcastle Revolt

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Main article:Oldcastle Revolt
John Oldcastlebeing burnt for insurrection and Lollard heresy.

John Oldcastle,a close friend ofHenry V of Englandand the basis forFalstaffin theShakespearean historyHenry IV, Part 1,was brought to trial in 1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs was uncovered. Oldcastle escaped from theTower of Londonand organized an insurrection, which included an attempted kidnapping of the king. The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was executed.Oldcastle's revoltmade Lollardy seem even more threatening to the state, and persecution of Lollards became more severe.

1428 Kentish Insurrection

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An insurrection was nipped in the bud in 1428, feared to involve several thousand Lollards, intent on "destroying the English church."[6]: 769 It was associated with Lollard missionary William White.

Late Lollardy in the 1500s

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Lollards were effectively absorbed intoProtestantismduring theEnglish Reformation,in which Lollardy played a role. Since Lollards had been underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate.[27][28][29]Ancestors ofBlanche Parry(the closest person toElizabeth Ifor 56 years) and ofBlanche Milborne(who raised Edward VI and Elizabeth I) had Lollard associations. Many critics of the Reformation, includingThomas More,equated Protestants with Lollards. Leaders of theEnglish Reformation,including ArchbishopThomas Cranmer,referred to Lollardy as well, andBishop Cuthbert Tunstall of LondoncalledLutheranismthe "foster-child" of the Wycliffite heresy.[30]Scholars debate whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy or whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition.

A variety of othermartyrsfor the Lollard cause were executed during the next century, including theAmershamMartyrs in the early 1500s andThomas Hardingin 1532, one of the last Lollards to be made victim. A gruesome reminder of this persecution is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, nowThorpe Hamlet,Norwich, Norfolk, "where men are customablie burnt",[31]includingThomas Bilney.

Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample records of the persecution of Lollards from this period. In theDiocese of London,there are records of about 310 Lollards being prosecuted or forced to abjure from 1510 to 1532. In Lincoln diocese, 45 cases against Lollardy were heard in 1506–1507 and in 1521 there were 50 abjurations and 5 burnings of Lollards.[clarification needed]In 1511,Archbishop Warhampresided over the abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent and the burning of 5.[32]

In 1529Simon Fishwrote an incendiary pamphletSupplication for the Beggarsincluding his denial ofpurgatoryand teachings that priestlycelibacywas an invention of theAntichrist.He argued that earthly rulers have the right to strip Church properties, and thattithingwas against theGospel,Protestant views that echo the Wycliffite/Lollard teaching.[33][34]He advocated closing of all monasteries, and notably provided economic estimates of the revenues of various monastic and church institutions.

The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown, but the prevalence of Protestanticonoclasmin England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence ifHuldrych Zwingliwas not the source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during theRevival of the Heresy Actsunder the CatholicMary I,which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy.

The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups, such as theBaptists,Puritans,andQuakers,also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation.[35]

Representations in art and literature

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Misericord with a carved scene showing a fox preaching from a pulpit to a cockerel and a goose.
Fox preaching to the gullible fowl, misericord (1491–1494), quire at Ripon Cathedral.

The Roman Catholic Church used art as an anti-Lollard weapon. Lollards were represented asfoxesdressed as monks or priests preaching to a flock ofgeeseonmisericords.[36]These representations alluded to the story of the preaching fox found in popular medieval literature such asThe History ofReynardthe FoxandThe Shifts of Raynardine.The fox lured the geese closer and closer with its eloquent words until it was able to snatch a victim to devour. The moral of the story being that foolish people are seduced by false teachers.

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^Roberts, Chris (2006),Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme,Thorndike Press,ISBN0-7862-8517-6.
  2. ^abOne or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911). "Lollards".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^cf. Englishlullaby,and the modern Dutch and Germanlallen"to babble, to talk drunkenly":"lallen".Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache.November 2022.
  4. ^"Lollard".Oxford English Dictionary.Oxford University Press.
  5. ^van Bright, T.J. (1886) [1660].The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror of the Defenseless Christians.Translated by Joseph F. Sohm (Third English ed.). Scottsdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press.
  6. ^abcdAston, Margaret (1982)."William White's Lollard Followers".The Catholic Historical Review.68(3): 469–497.ISSN0008-8080.JSTOR25021412.
  7. ^Walker, Greg (6 February 2013).Reading Literature Historically: Drama and Poetry from Chaucer to the Reformation.Edinburgh University Press. p. 152.ISBN9780748681037.
  8. ^Hornbeck, J. Patrick (10 September 2010).What is a lollard?: dissent and belief in late medieval England.Oxford University Press. p. 72.ISBN9780199589043.
  9. ^Barr, Helen (1994).Signes and Sothe: Language in the Piers Plowman Tradition.Boydell & Brewer.ISBN978-0-85991-419-2.
  10. ^McCarl, Mary Rhinelander, ed. (1997).The Plowman's Tale: The c. 1532 and 1606 Editions of a Spurious Canterbury Tale.New York: Garland. pp. 21–40.On the dating of "The Plowman's Tale", see Andrew N. Warn, "The Genesis of The Plowman's Tale, Yearbook of English Studies 2" 1972
  11. ^Hardwick, Paul (2011).English Medieval Misericords: The Margins of Meaning.Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press. p. 60.ISBN9781843836599.
  12. ^Hudson 1988,p. 284.
  13. ^Stone, Darwell (1 October 2007).A History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN978-1-59752-973-0.
  14. ^Hudson 1988,p. 285.
  15. ^Crossley-Holland, Nicole (1 January 1991).Eternal Values in Mediaeval Life.Saint David's Univ. College.ISBN978-0-905285-31-3.
  16. ^Wycliffe, John; Camden Society (Great Britain); Todd, James Henthorn (1842).An Apology for Lollard Doctrines.London: Printed for the Camden Society, by J. B. Nichols.Retrieved6 July2018.
  17. ^Hudson 1988,pp. 285–286.
  18. ^abAston, Margaret (1996)."Lollardy".Lollardy - Oxford Reference.Encyclopedia of the Reformation.ISBN978-0-19-506493-3.Retrieved31 May2017.– viaOUP(subscription required)
  19. ^Hudson 1988,p. 306.
  20. ^Hudson 1988,p. 280.
  21. ^abBucholz, Robert; Key, Newton (23 October 2019).Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-53221-8.
  22. ^Woolgar, C. M. (2016).The Culture of Food in England, 1200–1500.Yale University Press. p. 29.ISBN9780300181913.
  23. ^Gasse, Roseanne (1 January 1996)."Margery Kempe and Lollardy".Magistra.Archived fromthe originalon 30 August 2017.Retrieved30 May2017.
  24. ^Walker, Greg (1 May 1993)."Heretical Sects in Pre-Reformation England".History Today.Archived fromthe originalon 30 August 2017.Retrieved30 May2017.
  25. ^Walsingham.Historia Anglicana.Vol. 2. p. 189..
  26. ^abKelly, Stephen (29 June 2017). Hiscock, Andrew; Wilcox, Helen (eds.)."The Pre-Reformation Landscape".The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern English Literature and Religion.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199672806.013.2.ISBN978-0-19-967280-6.Retrieved7 July2018.
  27. ^Aston, Margaret E.(1964)."Lollardy and the Reformation: Survival or Revival?".History.49(166): 149–170.doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1964.tb01098.x.ISSN0018-2648.
  28. ^Dickens, A. G.(1989).The English Reformation(2nd ed.). Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 46–60.ISBN978-0271028682.
  29. ^Stansfield-Cudworth, R. E. (2021)."From Minority to Maturity: The Evolution of Later Lollardy".Socio-Historical Examination of Religion and Ministry.3(2): 325–352.doi:10.33929/sherm.2021.vol3.no2.07.ISSN2637-7500.S2CID248602354.
  30. ^Potter, R."Documents on the changing status of the English Vernacular, 1500–1540".RIC.Retrieved11 March2008.
  31. ^Rackham, Oliver(1976).Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape.JM Dent & Sons. pp. 137–38.ISBN0-460-04183-5..
  32. ^Dickens, A.G.(1959).Lollards & Protestants in the Diocese of York, 1509–58.A&C Black.ISBN9780907628057.
  33. ^Marc'hadour, Germain (1 June 1984). "Margaret Aston," William White's Lollard Followers "".Moreana.21 (Number 82) (2): 18.doi:10.3366/more.1984.21.2.4.ISSN0047-8105.
  34. ^Rollison, David (11 August 2005).The Local Origins of Modern Society: Gloucestershire 1500-1800.Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-91333-6.
  35. ^Spufford, Margaret,ed. (1995).The World of Rural Dissenters, 1520–1725.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521410618.
  36. ^Benton, Janetta (January 1997).Holy Terrors: Gargoyles on Medieval Buildings.Abbeville Press.ISBN978-0-7892-0182-9.,p. 83

General and cited references

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Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Lollards".
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