Crusade of Varna

Crusade of Varna
Part of theOttoman–Hungarian wars
KingWładysław III of Polandin theBattle of Varna,byJan Matejko
Date October 1443 – November 1444 Location Southern Europe(Balkans) Result Ottoman victory
Belligerents
Kingdom of Poland Kingdom of Hungary Kingdom of Croatia Grand Duchy of Lithuania Serbian Despotate Crown of Bohemia Principality of Wallachia Bulgarian rebels Kingdom of Bosnia Papal States Teutonic Knights Naval assistance: Duchy of Burgundy Republic of Venice Republic of Ragusa Byzantine Empire	Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Władysław III† John Hunyadi Đurađ Branković Mircea II Fruzhin Julian Cesarini†	Murad II

TheCrusade of Varnawas an unsuccessful military campaign mounted by several European leaders to check the expansion of theOttoman EmpireintoCentral Europe,specifically theBalkansbetween 1443 and 1444. It was called byPope Eugene IVon 1 January 1443 and led by KingWładysław III of Poland,John Hunyadi,Voivode of Transylvania,and DukePhilip the GoodofBurgundy.

The Crusade of Varna culminated in a decisive Ottoman victory over the crusader alliance at theBattle of Varnaon 10 November 1444, during which Władysław and the expedition's papal legateJulian Cesariniwere killed.

Background

In 1428, while theOttoman Empirewas fighting a war with theRepublic of Veniceand theKingdom of Hungarythey achieved a temporary peace by establishing theSerbian Despotateas abuffer state.After the war ended in 1430,the Ottomans returned to their earlier objective of controlling all lands south of theDanube.In 1432,SultanMurad IIbegan raiding intoTransylvania.After KingSigismunddied in 1437, the attacks intensified, with the Ottomans occupyingBoračin 1438 andZvornikandSrebrenicain 1439. At the end of 1439,Smederevocapitulated and Murad succeeded in making Serbia an Ottoman province.Đurađ Branković,Despotof Serbia, fled to his estates in Hungary. In 1440, Murad besieged Hungary's main border fortress,Belgrade.After failing to take the fortress, he was forced to return toAnatoliato stop attacks by theKaramanids.

Meanwhile, Sigismund's successorAlberthad died in October 1439, shortly after signing a law to "restore the ancient laws and customs of the realm". The law restricted theroyal authorityby requiring the participation oflanded nobilityin political decisions. Four months after Albert's death, his only sonLadislaus the Posthumouswas born while Hungary was in the midst of a civil war over the next monarch. On 17 July 1440,Władysław,king ofPoland,was crowned despite continuing disputes.John Hunyadiaided Władysław's cause by pacifying the eastern counties, gaining him the position ofNádorof Transylvania and the corresponding responsibility of protecting Hungary's southern border. By the end of 1442, Władysław had secured his status in Hungary, and rejected an Ottoman proposal of peace in exchange for Belgrade.

TheCatholic Churchhad long been advocating for a crusade against the Ottomans, and with the end of both the Hungarian civil war and a nearly simultaneous one inByzantium,they were able to begin negotiations and planning realistically. The impetus required to turn the plans into action was provided by Hunyadi between 1441–1442. In 1441, he defeated a raid led byIshak Pashaof Smederevo.He nearly annihilated Mezid Bey's army in Transylvania on 22 March 1442, and in September he defeated the revenge attack ofŞihabeddin Pasha,governor-general ofRumelia.Branković, hoping to liberate Serbia, also lent his support afterNovo Brdo,the last major Serbian city, fell to the Ottomans in 1441.

Crusade

Early fighting

On 1 January 1443,Pope Eugene IVpublished acrusading bull.In early May, it was reported "that the Turks were in a bad state and that it would be easy to expel them from Europe". War was proclaimed against Sultan Murad II at the diet ofBudaonPalm Sunday1443, and with an army of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, the young monarch, with Hunyadi commanding under him, crossed theDanubeand tookNishandSofia.

The crusaders, led by Władysław, Hunyadi, and Branković, attacked in mid-October. They correctly expected that Murad would not be able quickly to mobilize his army, which consisted mainly offief-holding cavalrymen (timariots) who needed to collect theharvestto pay taxes. Hunyadi's experience of winter campaigns from 1441–1442 added to the Hungarians' advantage. They also had better armor, often rendering the Ottoman weapons useless. Murad could not rely on the loyalty of his troops from Rumelia, and had difficulties countering Hungarian tactics.

Battle of Nish

Main article:Battle of Nish (1443)

In the Battle of Nish the crusaders were victorious and forcedKasim Pashaof Rumelia and his co-commanderTurahan Beyto flee toSofia,Bulgariato warn Murad of the invasion. However, the two burned all the villages in their path in an attempt to wear down the crusaders with ascorched earthtactic. When they arrived in Sofia, they advised the Sultan to burn the city and retreat to the mountain passes beyond, where the Ottoman's smaller army would not be such a disadvantage.

Battle of Zlatitsa

Main article:Battle of Zlatitsa

Shortly after, bitter cold set in, and the next encounter, fought atZlatitsaPass on 12 December 1443, was fought in the snow. Until the Battle of Zlatitsa the crusaders did not meet a major Ottoman army, but only town garrisons along their route towardAdrianople.Finally, at Zlatitsa they met strong and well positioned defence forces of the Ottoman army.The crusaders were defeated.

As they marched home, however, they ambushed and defeated a pursuing force in theBattle of Kunovica,whereMahmud Bey,son-in-law of the Sultan and brother of theGrand VizierÇandarlı Halil Pasha,was taken prisoner.Four days after this battle the Christian coalition reachedProkuplje.Branković proposed to Władysław and Hunyadi that they stay in Serbian fortified towns during the winter and continue their campaign against the Ottomans in Spring 1444. They rejected his proposal, and retreated.By the end of January 1444 forces of Władysław and Hunyadi reachedBelgrade,and in February they arrived atBudawhere they were greeted as heroes.

While the battle at Zlatitsa Pass had been a defeat, the ambush returned to the crusaders the impression of an overall Christian victory, and they returned triumphant. The King and Church were both anxious to maintain this impression, and gave instructions to spread word of the victories, but contradict anyone who mentioned the loss.

Murad, meanwhile, returned angry and dejected by the unreliability of his forces, and imprisoned Turahan after blaming him for the army's setbacks and Mahmud Bey's capture.

Peace proposals

Map of the crusades ofWładysław III of Poland;andJanos Hunyadi

Murad is believed to have had the greatest wish for peace. Among other things, his vizier's sister begged him to obtain her husband Mahmud's release, and his wifeMara,daughter of Đurađ Branković, added additional pressure. On 6 March 1444 Mara sent an envoy to Branković; their discussion started the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire.

On 24 April 1444, Władysław sent a letter to Murad, stating that his ambassador, Stojka Gisdanić, was travelling toEdirnewith full powers to negotiate on his behalf. He asked that, once an agreement was reached, Murad send his own ambassadors with the treaty and his sworn oath to Hungary, at which point Władysław could also swear.

That same day, Władysław held aDietatBuda,where he swore beforeCardinalJulian Cesarinito lead a new expedition against the Ottomans in the summer. The strongest remaining supporter of Ladislaus the Posthumous' claim for the throne also agreed to a truce, thus removing the danger of another civil war.

Between June and August 1444, negotiations for a treaty were carried out, first inEdirne,and then inSzeged.The crusaders were not entirely interested in peace, however, especially with Cesarini pushing for the crusade's continuation. The Cardinal eventually found a solution that would allow for both the continuation of fighting and the ratification of the treaty, and on 15 August 1444 thePeace of Szegedwas sworn into effect.

Final stage

Shortly after all the short-term requirements of the treaty were fulfilled, the Hungarians and their allies resumed the crusade. King Władysław gathered an army composed mostly of Hungarian regular troops, and forces from Poland, Transylvania,Croatia,Bosnia,heavy cavalry units from western Europe, and mercenaries from eastern Europe.The combined armies numbered 16,000, and were joined by 4,000Wallachiansin the area of Nicopolis.Murad, who had retired shortly after the treaty was completed, was called back to lead the Ottoman army. On 10 November 1444, the two armies clashed at theBattle of Varna(near theBlack Seafortress ofVarna, Bulgaria). The Ottomans won a decisive victory despite heavy losses, while the crusaders lost King Władysław and over 15,000 men.

Aftermath

Many of the Crusaders were crippled byfrostbite,many more died in smaller follow-up battles, and many Europeans were captured. Hungary fell back into civil war until Hunyadi was electedRegentfor the infantLadislausin June 1446. Branković retained control over Serbia.

The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in theSecond Battle of Kosovoin 1448, deterred the European states from sending substantial military assistance to theByzantinesduring the Ottomanconquest of Constantinoplein 1453. AlthoughPius IIofficially declared a three-year crusade at theCouncil of Mantuato recapture Constantinople from the Ottomans, the leaders who promised 80,000 soldiers to it reneged on their commitment.The Ottoman Empire was free, for several decades, from any further serious attempts to push it out of Europe.

In popular culture

The end of the Crusade of Varna serves as the starting point for thegrand strategyvideo gameEuropa Universalis IVbyParadox Development Studio,one day after theBattle of Varna,on 11 November 1444.

References

• Jireček, Konstantin(1978).Istorija Srba.Slovo ljubve.
• Pogăciaș, Andrei (2015). "John Hunyadi and the Late Crusade". In Sabaté, Flocel (ed.).Life and Religion in the Middle Ages.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.ISBN9781443881654.
• Setton, Kenneth M.(1978).The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century.Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.ISBN0-87169-127-2.
• Setton, Kenneth M.;Hazard, Harry W.; Zacour, Norman P. (1990).A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe.Univ of Wisconsin Press.ISBN978-0-299-10744-4.