Low German
Low German | |
---|---|
Low Saxon | |
Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian); Neddersassisch; Nedderdüütsch | |
Native to | NorthernandwesternGermany EasternNetherlands Southern Denmark |
Ethnicity | Dutch Germans Frisians Russian Mennonites HistoricallySaxons |
Native speakers | Estimated 4.35–7.15 million[a][1][2][3] Up to 10 millionsecond-language speakers(2001)[4] |
Early forms | |
Dialects | |
Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 | nds |
ISO 639-3 | nds (Dutch varieties and Westphalian have separate codes) |
Glottolog | lowg1239 Low German |
Linguasphere | 52-ACB |
![]() Present-day Low German language area in Europe | |
Low German[b]is aWest Germaniclanguage[12][13]spoken mainly inNorthern Germanyand the northeasternNetherlands.The dialect ofPlautdietschis also spoken in theRussian Mennonitediaspora worldwide.
Low German is most closely related toFrisianandEnglish,with which it forms theNorth Sea Germanicgroup of the West Germanic languages. LikeDutch,it has historically been spoken north of theBenrathandUerdingenisoglosses,while forms ofHigh German(of whichStandard Germanis a standardized example) have historically been spoken south of those lines. Like Frisian, English, Dutch and theNorth Germanic languages,Low German has not undergone theHigh German consonant shift,as opposed toStandard High German,which is based onHigh German dialects.Low German evolved fromOld Saxon (Old Low German),which is most closely related toOld FrisianandOld English (Anglo-Saxon).
The Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands are mostly referred to asLow Saxon,those spoken in northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony,Westphalia,Schleswig-Holstein,Hamburg,Bremen,andSaxony-Anhaltwest of theElbe) as either Low German or Low Saxon, and those spoken in northeastern Germany (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania,Brandenburg,and Saxony-Anhalt east of the Elbe) mostly as Low German, not being part of Low Saxon. This is because northwestern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands were the area of settlement of theSaxons(Old Saxony), while Low German spread to northeastern Germany througheastward migrationof Low German speakers into areas with an originallySlavic-speakingpopulation. This area is known asGermania Slavica,where the former Slavic influence is still visible in the names of settlements and physiogeographical features.[c]
It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 2–5 million speakers in Germany, primarily Northern Germany (ranging from well to very well),[14]and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (ranging from reasonable to very well).[15]
Geographical extent
[edit]Inside Europe
[edit]Germany
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Oortsschild_von_Olenbrook%2C_Landkreis_Cuxhoben_4.jpg/170px-Oortsschild_von_Olenbrook%2C_Landkreis_Cuxhoben_4.jpg)
"Altenbruch"
(Standard German)
"Olenbrook"
(Low German),
meaning "old bog/swamp" (incorporated village ofCuxhaven).
It has been estimated that Low German has approximately two to five million speakers (depending on the definition of 'native speaker') in Germany, primarily in Northern Germany.[16]
Variants of Low German are spoken in most parts ofNorthern Germany,for instance in the states ofLower Saxony,North Rhine-Westphalia,Hamburg,Bremen,Schleswig-Holstein,Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,Saxony-Anhalt,andBrandenburg.Small portions of northernHesseand northernThuringiaare traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too. Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts ofPoland(e.g., Pomerania andSilesia), as well as inEast Prussiaand the Baltic provinces (modernEstoniaandLatvia.TheBaltic Germansspoke a distinct Low German dialect, which has influenced the vocabulary and phonetics of both Estonian and Latvian. The historicalsprachraumof Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, East Prussia (the modernKaliningrad Oblastof Russia), a part of westernLithuania,and the German communities in Estonia and Latvia, most notably their Hanseatic cities. German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II.
The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city-state ofBerlin,but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city, the language has vanished (the Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost ofHigh German,though it has some Low German features).
Today, there are still speakers outside Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present-dayPoland(minority ofethnic GermanEast Pomeranianspeakers who were not expelled fromPomerania,as well as the regions aroundBraniewo).[citation needed]In the SouthernJutlandregion of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in someGerman minoritycommunities, but the Low German dialects ofDenmarkcan be consideredmoribundat this time.[citation needed]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Ls-dialects.jpg)
State | 'Well' or 'very well'[17] | 'Very well' only[17] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
% of pop. | Numbers | % of pop. | Numbers | |
Schleswig-Holstein | 24.5% | 694,085 | 16.5% | 467,445 |
North Rhine-Westphalia | 11.8% | 2,103,940 | 5.2% | 927,160 |
Lower Saxony | 15.4% | 1,218,756 | 4.7% | 371,958 |
Hamburg | 9.5% | 169,860 | 3.2% | 57,216 |
Bremen | 17.6% | 116,336 | 9.9% | 65,439 |
Brandenburg | 2.8% | 70,000 | 2.6% | 65,000 |
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 20.7% | 339,273 | 5.9% | 96,701 |
Saxony-Anhalt | 11.8% | 275,058 | 2.2% | 51,282 |
Entire Low German dialect area | 15.7% | 4,987,308 | 6.2% | 2,197,205 |
The Netherlands
[edit]Dialects of Low German are spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon) and are written there with an unstandardized orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. The position of the language is, according to UNESCO, vulnerable.[18]Between 1995 and 2011 the numbers of parent speakers dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011. Numbers of child speakers dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period.[19]According to a 2005 study 53% speak Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it in the researched area.[20]The total number of speakers is estimated at 1.7 million speakers.[3]There are speakers in the Dutch north and eastern provinces ofGroningen,Drenthe,Stellingwerf(part ofFriesland),Overijssel,Gelderland,UtrechtandFlevoland,in several dialect groups per province.
Outside Europe and the Mennonites
[edit]There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the Western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of theMennonitereligion and culture.[21]There are Mennonite communities inOntario,Saskatchewan,Alberta,British Columbia,Manitoba,KansasandMinnesotawhich use Low German in their religious services and communities. These Mennonites are descended from primarily Dutch settlers that had initially settled in theVistula deltaregion ofPrussiain the 16th and 17th centuries before moving to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and then to theAmericasin the 19th and early 20th centuries. The types of Low German spoken in these communities and in theMidwestregion of the United States have diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places, and has died out in many places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in western New York (Bergholz, New York), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pomerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remaining speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, andChihuahua,Mexico, have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community.[citation needed]
East Pomeranianis also spoken in parts ofsouthernandsoutheasternBrazil, in the latter especially in the state ofEspírito Santo,being official in five municipalities, and spoken among itsethnically Europeanmigrants elsewhere, primarily in the states ofRio de JaneiroandRondônia.East Pomeranian-speaking regions of Southern Brazil are often assimilated into the generalGerman Brazilianpopulation and culture, for example celebrating theOktoberfest,and there can even be a language shift from it toRiograndenser Hunsrückischin some areas. InEspírito Santo,nevertheless, Pomeranian Brazilians are more often proud of their language, and particular religious traditions and culture,[23]and not uncommonly inheriting the nationalism of their ancestors, being more likely to accept marriages of its members with Brazilians of origins other than a Germanic Central European one than to assimilate with Brazilians ofSwiss,Austrian,Czech,and non-East Pomeranian-speaking German and Prussian heritage[clarification needed]– that were much more numerous immigrants to both Brazilian regions (and whose language almost faded out in the latter, due to assimilation and internal migration)[clarification needed],by themselves less numerous than theItalianones (with only Venetian communities in areas of highly Venetian presence conservingTalian,and other Italian languages and dialects fading out elsewhere).[clarification needed]
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Nomenclature
[edit]This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(June 2019) |
The language grouping of Low German is referred to, in the language itself as well as in its umbrella languages of German and Dutch, in several different ways, ranging from official names such as Niederdeutsche and Nederduits to more general characterisations such as "dialect". The proliferation of names or characterisations is due in part to the grouping stretching mainly across two different countries and to it being a collection of varieties rather than a standardised language.
There are different uses of the term "Low German":
- A specific name of anyWest Germanicvarietiesthat neither have taken part in theHigh German consonant shiftnor classify asLow FranconianorAnglo-Frisian;this is the scope discussed in this article.
- A broader term for the closely related, continentalWest Germanic languagesunaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying asAnglo-Frisian,and thus includingLow Franconianvarieties.
In Germany, native speakers of Low German call their languagePlatt,Plattdütsch,Plattdüütsch,Plattdütsk,Plattdüütsk,Plattduitsk(South-Westphalian),Plattduitsch(Eastphalian),Plattdietsch(Low Prussian), orNedderdüütsch.In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language asdialect,plat,Nedersaksisch,or the name of their village, town or district.
Officially, Low German is calledniederdeutsche Spracheorplattdeutsche Sprache(Nether or Low German language),NiederdeutschorPlattdeutsch(Nether or Low German) in High German by the German authorities,nedderdüütsche Spraak(Nether or Low German language),NedderdüütschorPlattdüütsch(Nether or Low German) in Low German by the German authorities andNedersaksisch(Nether or Low Saxon) by the Dutch authorities.Plattdeutsch,NiederdeutschandPlatduits,Nedersaksischare seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.
In Danish it is calledPlattysk,Nedertyskor, rarely,Lavtysk.Mennonite Low German is calledPlautdietsch.
"Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of thenorthern European lowlands,contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, whereHigh German(Highland German) is spoken.[25]
The colloquial termPlattdenotes both Low German dialects and any non-standardWestern variety ofGerman;this use is chiefly found in northern and Western Germany and is not considered to belinguisticallycorrect.[26]
TheISO 639-2language code for Low German has beennds(niedersächsischornedersaksisch, neddersassisch) since May 2000.
Classification
[edit]Low German is a part of the continentalWest Germanicdialect continuum.To the West, it blends into theLow Franconian languages,includingDutch.A distinguishing feature between the Low Franconian varieties and Low German varieties is the plural of the verbs. Low German varieties have a common verbal plural ending, whereas Low Franconian varieties have a different form for the second person plural. This is complicated in that in most Low Franconian varieties, including standardDutch,the original second-person plural form has replaced the singular. Some dialects, including again standard Dutch, innovated a new second-person plural form in the last few centuries, using the other plural forms as the source.
To the South, Low German blends into theHigh Germandialects ofCentral Germanthat have been affected by theHigh German consonant shift.The division is usually drawn at theBenrath linethat traces themaken–machenisogloss.
To the East, it abuts theKashubian language(the only remnant of thePomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from the Polish part ofPomeraniafollowing the Second World War, also by thePolish language. East PomeranianandCentral Pomeranianare dialects of Low German.
To the North and Northwest, it abuts theDanishand theFrisian languages.In Germany, Low German has replaced the Danish and Frisian languages in many regions.Saterland Frisianis the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remainingNorth Frisianvarieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have influences from Frisian substrates.
Most linguists classify the dialects of Low German together withEnglishandFrisianas theNorth SeaGermanicorIngvaeoniclanguages. However, most exclude Low German from the group often calledAnglo-Frisian languagesbecause some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially preserved in Low German, for instance theIngvaeonic nasal spirant law(some dialects haveus,osfor "us" whereas others haveuns,ons), and because other distinctive features almost do not occur in Low German at all, for instance thepalatalizationand assibilation of/k/(compare palatalized forms such as Englishcheese,Frisiantsiisto non-palatalized forms such as Low GermanKeesorKaise,Dutchkaas,GermanKäsebut Low German Sever/Sebber while German Käfer[27]) However, since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German and especially in its older language stages, there is a tendency to prefer the Ingvaeonic classification instead of the Anglo-Frisian one, which also takes Low German into account. Because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence early on and therefore lost many Ingvaeonic features that were to be found much more extensively in earlier language states.[28]
Language or dialect
[edit]The question of whether today's Low German should be considered a separate language or a dialect ofGermanor evenDutchhas been a point of contention. Although Low German is mostly regarded as an independent language[29]linguisticsoffers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide the question.
Scholarly arguments have been put forward for classifying Low German as a German dialect.[30]As stated above, the arguments are not linguistic but rather sociopolitical and revolve mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a "pseudo-dialectizedabstand language"("scheindialektisierte Abstandsprache").[31]In contrast,Old SaxonandMiddle Low Germanare generally considered separate languages in their own right. Since Low German has strongly declined since the 18th century, the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct adaptations from the dominating standard language, resulting in a growing inability by speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.[32]
Others have argued for the independence of today's Low German dialects, taken as continuous outflow of the Old Saxon and Middle Low German tradition.[33]Glottologclassifies six varieties of Low German as distinct languages based on a low degree ofmutual intelligibility.Eastern Low German and Plautdietsch are classified as part of Greater East Low German, while Eastphalian, Westphalic, and the North Low Saxon languages, German Northern Low Saxon and Gronings, are classified as part of West Low German.[34]
Legal status
[edit]Low German has been recognized by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as aregional languageaccording to theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1a), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language, and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).[35]
At the request ofSchleswig-Holstein,the German government has declared Low German as aregional language.German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German on the same footing as Standard High German applications.[36]TheBundesgerichtshofruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office inMunich,in anon–Low German region,when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator,[37]because applications in Low German are considered not to be written in the German language.
Varieties of Low German
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Low_German_dialects_around_the_world.jpg/220px-Low_German_dialects_around_the_world.jpg)
- Low Saxonor West Low German
- East Frisian Low Saxon
- Northern Low Saxon
- Westphalian(Westfälisch)
- Westmünsterländisch
- Münsterländisch
- South Westphalian (Südwestfälisch)
- East Westphalian (Ostwestfälisch)
- Stellingwerfs
- Drents
- Twents
- Twents-Graafschaps
- Twents
- Gelders-Overijssels
- Achterhoeks
- Sallands
- Oost-Veluws(partly classified as Veluws)
- Urkers
- Veluws
- Oost-Veluws(partly classified as Gelders-Overijssels)
- West-Veluws
- Eastphalian(Ostfälisch)
- East Low German
- Brandenburgisch
- Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
- Central Pomeranian (Mittelpommersch)
- East Pomeranian(Ostpommersch)
- Low Prussian(Niederpreußisch)
- Plautdietsch(MennoniteLow German, used also in many other countries)
History
[edit]Old Saxon
[edit]Old Saxon (Altsächsisch), also known as Old Low German (Altniederdeutsch), is aWest Germanic language.It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved intoMiddle Low German.It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany bySaxon peoples.It is closely related to OldAnglo-Frisian(Old Frisian,Old English), partially participating in theIngvaeonic nasal spirant law.
Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest ofCharlemagne.The only literary texts preserved areHeliandand theOld Saxon Genesis.
-
"Altniederdeutsch" – Old Saxon; "Mittelniederdeutsch" - Middle Low German; "Niederdeutsch" – Modern Low German
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Old Saxon speaking area (purple)
-
Heliand– fragment, one of the most important testimonies of Old Saxon
Old Saxon | Modern Low German | ||
Fadar usa firiho barno, | Vadder van us, (...) | ||
thu bist an them hohon himila rikea, | Du bist an den hogen himmlischen Riek, | ||
geuuihid si thin namo uuordo gehuuilico, | Hiligt wees dien naam in elk Woord, | ||
Cuma thin craftag riki. | Kaam dien mächtig Riek. | ||
UUerða thin uuilleo oƀar thesa werold alla, | Warr dien Wille över düsse Werld allerwegens, | ||
so sama an erðo, so thar uppa ist | so up de Eerd, as dat it is dor baven | ||
an them hohon himilo rikea. | in den hogen himmlischen Riek. | ||
Gef us dag gehuuilikes rad, drohtin the godo, | Giff us elk Dag Raad, Herr de Gode, | ||
thina helaga helpa, endi alat us, | Dine hilige Hölp, un laat us free, | ||
heƀenes uuard, | Beschermer van de Heven, | ||
managoro mensculdio, | us männje Schullen, | ||
al so uue oðrum mannum doan. | ust so as wi doot mit anneren Minschen. | ||
Ne lat us farledean leða uuihti | Laat lege Wichten nich us verschünnen | ||
so forð an iro uuileon, so uui uuirðige sind, | jümehr Willen to doon, as wi würdig sind, | ||
ac help us uuiðar allun uƀilon dadiun. | man hölp us twingen tegen alle öveln Daden. | ||
Middle Low German
[edit]The Middle Low German language (Mittelniederdeutsch) is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600. The neighbouring languages within thedialect continuumof theWest Germanic languageswereMiddle Dutchin the West andMiddle High Germanin the South, later substituted byEarly New High German.Middle Low German was thelingua francaof theHanseatic League,spoken all around theNorth Seaand theBaltic Sea.[38]It had a significant influence on theScandinavian languagesand other languages around the Baltic Sea. Based on the language ofLübeck,a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.
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Hanseatic main area
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Reyneke de Vos is the most important Middle Low German animal epic in verse.
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Inscription in Middle Low German on a house at Hameln. Translation:All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity.
Middle Low German | Modern Low German | |||||||||
Van deme thunkonnynck | Van dên niëtelkuönînk | |||||||||
Yd gheschach vp eynen voryarsdach, | Et geschooich up eenen vruijaorsdag | |||||||||
Alze grone men bomen vnde haghen sach | Asse gruinen mên buime on hagen saoch | |||||||||
Vnde manck de krüder vele schone blomen, | Un mank de kruder viêle schuine blooumen, | |||||||||
Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen, | Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen, | |||||||||
Do boeden voghelen grote vnde kleyne | Doar bowweden vuëgel, graaute on kleeine, | |||||||||
Nester vp dat se nicht leuen alleyne. | Nester, op dat ze nich liêwen alleeîne. | |||||||||
Eyn thunkonnynck wonede wol tho vreden | Eein niëtelkuönînk woeönde wul touvriêr | |||||||||
Myt wyff vnde kyndere in eyner steden | Met wiew un kînners în eeine stiehe, | |||||||||
Waghenschune wol aff gheleghen, | În ’ne waogenschoer woal afgeliêgen, | |||||||||
Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen. | Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen. | |||||||||
Eyns weren vth ghevloghen de olden, | Eeins wören oetvloeögen de aaulen, | |||||||||
Wente se vödynge vynden wolden | Wieldat ze voder vînnen wollen | |||||||||
Vor ere yungen tho huß in deme neste, | Veur iêre jongen touhoes în dên neste, | |||||||||
Dat se gud ethen vnde wassen vpt beste. | Dat ze gout iêten on wassen op’t beste. | |||||||||
Men do se vth ghevloghen tho tweyne, | Mên wiel ze oetvloeögen weuren tou tweeine, | |||||||||
Weren de yungen gantz alleyne. | Weuren de jongen gaans aleeine. | |||||||||
Alzo de vader quam wedder thom nest, | As dên de vaoder toun nest wier kwam, | |||||||||
Is dar eyn gantz arg gheluth ghewest. | Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang. | |||||||||
Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang. | Doa sproik he »Worumme dat, kînners mien, | |||||||||
We dede yw an solke wee vnde pyn?« | Wêr dêe joe aan sokke laiden on pien?« | |||||||||
»Leue vader,« repen se, »horet gy! | »Lêiwe vaoder,« roipen ze, »heuëret Jie! | |||||||||
Eyn groue vnwycht quam hyr vor by. | Eein groawe onwicht kwam hier veurbie. | |||||||||
Seer greselyk sach he vth vnde slym. | Zêêr greeslik saoch hei oet on slim. | |||||||||
Syne oghen glvpeden quad vnde grym | Ziene aaugen gloepkeden kwaaud on met grîm | |||||||||
Wo kvnden wy dar ane anxte syn?« | Woe konnen wi doar aaune aangste zien?« | |||||||||
»Wanne, kyndere myn,« sus sprack he do, | »Waorhen, kînnerken mien,« zaau sproik hei doar, | |||||||||
»War is de vnwycht ghebleuen? Secht tho!« | »Waor is de onwicht bliewen? Zegget tou!« | |||||||||
»Leue vader,« he do tho antwort krech, | »Lêiwe vader,« hêw hei tou aantwoort krieëgen | |||||||||
»He ghynck van hyr vp dennen wech.« | »Hei göng van hier op dênne wiêgen.« | |||||||||
Alzo sprack de vader »Wachtet gy hyr! | Aal voart sproik de vaoder » Tuiwet gie hier! | |||||||||
Syd gy schon stylle! Bewyset fyn tzyr! | Ziët gie schuîn stîlle! Bewiezet vien sier! | |||||||||
Ick wyl en volgen vnde sal en wol kryghen. | Ik wil em volgen on zal em woal kriegen. | |||||||||
Dar vmme möthen gy schulen vnde swyghen. | Doarumme muëtet gie schoelen on swiegen. | |||||||||
Gy dorven nu nicht vruchten meer. | Gie druëwet noe nich vruchten mêêr. | |||||||||
Ik wyl drade komen wedder heer.« | Ik wîl gawwe koeömen wier hiêr.« | |||||||||
De thunkonnynck is vp den wech ghevloghen, | De niëtelkuönînk is op den wiêge vloeögen, | |||||||||
Vnde alze he quam vmme eynen boghen, | On as hei kwaim ümme eeinen boeögen, | |||||||||
Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen | Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen | |||||||||
Myt breydem rugge vnde langer maen. | Met breeiden rugge on laanke maon. | |||||||||
Men de luttyke voghel was vnvorverd, | Mên de lutke voagel was onvervêrt, | |||||||||
Alze sy des lauen kraft weynich werd. | Asse weur den löwwen zien kraft weeinig wêrt. | |||||||||
He vloch vp des lauen rugge myt hast, | Hei vloig op den löwwen zien rugge met hast, | |||||||||
He sette de klouen dar ynne vast | Hei zett’de de klaauen doar înne vast | |||||||||
Vnde vunck eyn seer luth schelden an, | On vöng eein zêêr loetet schênnen aan, | |||||||||
Alze luth eyn voghel ok schelden kan. | Asse loet eein vuagel aauk schênnen kaan. | |||||||||
Men de laue horde nicht den luttyken ryder | Mên de löwwe hêörde nich den lutken rieder | |||||||||
Vnde ghynck synen wech gantz stylle wyder. | On göng zienen wiêge gaans stille wieder. | |||||||||
Do worde des kerlkens torn noch slymmer. | Doar weurde dat kêrlken zien torn naau slîmmer. | |||||||||
Syn moth worde dryster, syn vlöken grymmer. | Zien moout weurde driester, sien vluiken grîmmer. | |||||||||
»Ick segge dy, slumpe bözewycht, | »Ik zegge die, slompe buizewicht, | |||||||||
Myne kynder vorveren vorloue ick nicht! | Miene kînners vervêren verluiwe ik nicht! | |||||||||
Vnde kumpst du wedder tho mynem nest, | On kümps du wier tou mienen nest, | |||||||||
Is yd eyn myßdat, dat du doest tho lest. | Is et eein misdaaut, deei doe dois toulest. | |||||||||
Ick wyl yd nicht gherne doen. O neyn!« | Ik wîl et nich gêren doun. O neeîn!« | |||||||||
Vnde he lüftede an eyn van syn beyn, | On hei luftede aan eein van zien beeîn, | |||||||||
»Nochtan dede ick yd – god möthe my wreken: | »Doach daon dê ik et – God mogte mie vriêken: | |||||||||
Myt mynem beyn dyn rugge thobreken.« | Met mienen beeîn dien rugge toubriêken.« | |||||||||
Sus vloch he tho rugge tho synem huß, | Zaau vloig hei tourugge tou zienen hoes, | |||||||||
War de kyndere wachten, elk styl alze eyn muß, | Wao de kînnerken tuiw’den, êlk stîl as eein moes, | |||||||||
Vnde sprack »horet, kynder! Ick gaff deme syn leer. | On sproik »Hêöret, kînner! Ik gaaif dêm zien lêêr. | |||||||||
He kumpt nu nicht wedder. | Heei kump noe nich wier. | |||||||||
Neyn, nummer meer!« | Neei, nummer mêêr!« |
Contemporary
[edit]There is a distinction between theGermanand theDutchLow Saxon/Low German situation.
Germany
[edit]After mass education inGermanyin the 19th and 20th centuries, the slow decline which Low German had been experiencing since the end of theHanseatic Leagueturned into a free fall. The decision to exclude Low German in formal education was not without controversy, however. On one hand, proponents of Low German advocated that since it had a strong cultural and historical value and was the native language of students in northern Germany, it had a place in the classroom. On the other hand, High German was considered the language of education, science, and national unity, and since schools promoted these values, High German was seen as the best candidate for the language of instruction.[42]
Initially, regional languages and dialects were thought to limit the intellectual ability of their speakers. When historical linguists illustrated the archaic character of certain features and constructions of Low German, this was seen as a sign of its "backwardness". It was not until the efforts of proponents such as Klaus Groth that this impression changed. Groth's publications demonstrated that Low German was a valuable language in its own right, and he was able to convince others that Low German was suitable for literary arts and was a national treasure worth keeping.[42]
Through the works of advocates like Groth, both proponents and opponents of Low German in formal education saw the language's innate value as the cultural and historical language of northern Germany. Nevertheless, opponents claimed that it should simply remain a spoken and informal language to be used on the street and in the home, but not in formal schooling. In their opinion, it simply did not match the nationally unifying power of High German. As a result, while Low German literature was deemed worthy of being taught in school, High German was chosen as the language of scholarly instruction. With High German the language of education and Low German the language of the home and daily life, a stable diglossia developed in Northern Germany.[42]Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, but many fewer arenative speakers.Total users of Low German (nds) are approximately 2.5 million, with 300,000 native speakers in Brazil and 1,000 in Germany as of 2016.[43]
TheKDEproject supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment,[44]as does theGNOMEDesktop Project.Open-source softwarehas been translated into Low German; this used to be coordinated via a page on SourceForge,[45]but as of 2015, the most active project is that of KDE.[46]
Netherlands
[edit]In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. As education improved, and mass communication became more widespread, the Low Saxon dialects further declined, although decline has been greater in urban centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such asNormaalandBoh Foi Toch became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the Western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they gained a following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants, launching Low Saxon as a sub-culture. They inspired contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such asDaniël Lohues ,Mooi Wark ,Jovink en de Voederbietels ,Hádiejan Nonetheless, the position of the language is vulnerable according to UNESCO.[18]Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. Efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as aregional language.
Phonetic and grammatical changes
[edit]High German consonant shift
[edit]As with theAnglo-FrisianandNorth Germanic languages,Low German has not been influenced by theHigh German consonant shiftexcept for old/ð/having shifted to/d/.Therefore, a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except in theYorkshire dialect,where there is a process known asYorkshire assimilation.[47]
For instance:water[wɒtɜ,ˈwatɜ,ˈwætɜ],later[ˈlɒːtɜ,ˈlaːtɜ,ˈlæːtɜ],bit[bɪt],dish[dis,diʃ],ship[ʃɪp,skɪp,sxɪp],pull[pʊl],good[ɡou̯t,ɣɑu̯t,ɣuːt],clock[klɔk],sail[sɑi̯l],he[hɛi̯,hɑi̯,hi(j)],storm[stoːrm],wind[vɪˑnt],grass[ɡras,ɣras],hold[hoˑʊl(t)],old[oˑʊl(t)]. The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by thischain shiftand their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.
The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by thischain shiftand their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.
Proto-Germanic | High German | Northern Low German | Dutch | English | High German | West Frisian | Swedish | Icelandic |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
-k- | -ch- | maken | maken | make | machen | meitsje | maka(arch.) | |
k- | k- | Keerl (Kerl)(fellow) | kerel | churl | Kerl* | tsjirl(arch.) | karl | karl |
d- | t- | Dag | dag | day | Tag | dei | dag | dagur |
-t- | -ss- | eten (ȩten, äten) [Westphalian:iäten] |
eten | eat | essen | ite | äta | eta |
t- | z- (/t͡s/) | teihn (tein) | tien | ten | zehn | tsien | tio | tíu |
-tt- | -tz-, -z- (/t͡s/) | sitten | zitten | sit | sitzen | sitte | sitta | sitja |
-p | -f, -ff | Schipp, Schepp, Schüpp and Skipp | schip | ship | Schiff | skip | skepp*** | skip |
p- | pf- | Peper | peper | pepper | Pfeffer | piper | peppar | pipar |
-β- | -b- | Wiew, Wiewer; Wief, Wiewer; Wief, Wiever; Wief, Wieber | wijf, wijven** | wife, wives | Weib, Weiber** | wiif, wiven | viv** | víf |
Notes:
- * High GermanKerlis a loanword from Low German.
- ** The seriesWief–wijf,etc. arecognates,not semantic equivalents. The meanings of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch, German and Swedish isvrouw,Frauandfrurespectively; usingwijf,Weiborvivfor a human is considered archaic in Swedish and nowadays derogatory in Dutch and German, comparable to "wicked girl".No cognate toFrau/vrouw/fruhas survived in English (compare Old Englishfrōwe"lady"; the English wordfrow"woman, lady" rather being a borrowing of the Middle Dutch word).
- *** Pronouncedsheppsince the 17th century
Ingvaeonisms
[edit]Like English and Frisian, Low German is part of the North Sea Germanic languages and therefore has so-called Ingvaonisms. However, these are not distributed equally regionally everywhere. Some dialects have more and others fewer of these features, while some only occur in older forms of language and only leave relics in modern Low German.
Ingvaonic development | Low German (different dialects) | English | Westfrisian | Dutch | German | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal-Spirant-Law | küüt[50] | could | koed | gekund | gekonnt | ||
us | us | ús | ons | uns | |||
wöösken | to wish | winskje | wensen | wünschen | |||
gais | goose | goes | gans | Gans | |||
wy stödden[51] | we stood | wy stiene | we stonden | wir standen | |||
toeggede[52] | tenth | tsiende | tiende | zehnte | |||
fiewe | five | fif | vijf | fünf | |||
määske | - | minske | mens | Mensch | |||
süss | - | - | zus (obj.) | sonst | |||
R-Metathesis | beort[52] | board | board | bord | Brett | ||
däärde | third | tredde | derde | dritter | |||
dartehn | thirteen | trettjin | dertien | dreizehn | |||
dartig | thirty | tritich | dertig | dreißig | |||
borste | breast | boarst | borst | Brust | |||
forsk | frosk | froask | kikvors | Frosch | |||
hors[53] | horse | hoars | ros | Ross | |||
born[54] | bourn | boarne | bron | Brunnen | |||
dröwwen | thair(dialectal) | doarre | durven | dürfen | |||
Loss of persons distincions
in plural forms of verbs |
wi doot | OE: wē dōþ | wy dogge | wij doen | wir tun | ||
ji doot | OE: ġē dōþ | jim dogge | julie doen | ihr tut | |||
jij doet | |||||||
se doot | OE: hīe dōþ | sy dogge | zij doen | sie tun | |||
No "t" in 3rd person singular of "to be" | is~es | is | is | is | ist | ||
No "r" in 1st person plural pronoun | wi | we | wy | wij | wir | ||
Future tense formation
with the auxiliary verb "shall" |
schallen/sallen | shall | sille | zullen | werden | ||
No distinction between
dative and accusative |
objective
(East Frisian dialect) |
objective | objective | objective | accusative | dative | |
den[55] | - | - | - | den | dem | ||
dessen[56] | this | dizze | deze | diesen | diesem | ||
mi[57] | me | my | mij | mich | mir | ||
di[58] | you (thee) | dy | jou | dich | dir | ||
hüm[59] | him | him | hem | ihn | ihm | ||
hör[60] | her | har | haar | sie | ihr | ||
dat[61] | it | it | het | es | ihm | ||
u(n)s[62][63] | us | ús | ons | uns | uns | ||
jo[64] | you | jo | jullie | euch | euch | ||
hör[60] | them | harren | hen ~ hun | sie | ihnen | ||
Using other personal pronouns | he | he | hy | hij | er | ||
se,he (only in Twente[65]) | OE: hēo | sy,hja | zij | sie | |||
ji | you | jim | jullie | ihr | |||
se | OE: hīe | sy,hja | zij | sie | |||
No ge-prefix | maakt | made | makke | gemaakt | gemacht | ||
daon | done | dien | gedaan | getan | |||
sehn | seen | sjoen | gezien | gesehen | |||
gaone | gone | gien | gegaan | gegangen | |||
lääsen, leest[66] | read | lêzen | gelezen | gelesen | |||
Assibilization or palatalization of velar consonants | OS:kiennan[67] | OE:cunnan | kenne | kennen | kennen | ||
OS:kiesur[68] | OE:caser | keizer | keizer | Kaiser | |||
MLG:zint[69] | child | - | Kind | Kind | |||
Northern Low German:Sebber/Sever[70] | OE:ċeafor | krobbe | kever | Käfer | |||
OS:ieldan[67] | yield | jild | geld | Geld | |||
Palatalization of Germanic "a" | OS:therf[71] | OE:thearf | ? | ? | darf | ||
OS:deg[72] | day
OE:dæg |
dei | dag | Tag | |||
OS:gles[73] | glas
OE:glæs |
glês | glas | Glas | |||
Loss reflexive pronoun in 3rd person singular plural | 3rd p. s. m. | sik/sey,[74]um(for example in Vriezenveen)[75] | himself | him | zich | sich | |
3rd p. s. f. | sik/ierk,[74]eer(for example in Vriezenveen)[75] | herself | har | zich | sich | ||
3rd p. p. | sik/ierk,[74]eer( for example in Vriezenveen)[75] | themself | harren | zich | sich | ||
Other changes
[edit]In addition, there are of course numerous other changes that are not related to Ingwaonic phenomena, but that arose in exchange with other languages or something else. The table below reflects some of these developments insofar as they affect several dialects and are therefore not exceptional phenomena.
Sound change | German | Frisian | Dutch | Low German | Swedish | English |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ks → ss | wachsen | waakse | wassen | wassen | växa | (to grow) |
Fuchs | voks | fos | foss | fux | fox | |
Ochse | okse | ose | osse | oxe | ox | |
sechs | seis | zes | sess | sex | six | |
Wachs | waaks | was | was | vax | wax | |
intervocalic /d/ cluster | alt - älter | âld- âlder | oud - ouder | old - oller | gammal - äldre | old - older |
kalt - kälter | kâld - kâlder | koud - kouder | kold - koller | kallt - kallare | cold - colder | |
wild - wilder | wyld - wylder | wild - wilder | wild - willer | vild - vildare | wild- wilder | |
unter | ûnder | onder | unner | under | under | |
Schulter | skouder | schouder | schuller | skuldra | shoulder |
Grammar
[edit]This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(May 2016) |
![]() | This article mayrequirecleanupto meet Wikipedia'squality standards.The specific problem is:Besides being unsourced, the article is wrong (or at best incomplete and misleading). Also, as there are different Low German dialects with different grammar, it probably makes more sense to give the dialectal grammar in articles likeNorthern Low Saxon,Low Prussian dialect,Westphalian languageetc.(October 2017) |
Generally speaking, Low Germangrammarshows similarities with thegrammarsofDutch,Frisian,English,andScots,but thedialectsof NorthernGermanyshare some features (especiallylexicalandsyntacticfeatures) withGermandialects.
Personal pronouns
[edit]The following table tries to reflect the linguistic situation of the individual dialects as diverse as possible and to name as many case forms of the respective pronouns, but it is not able to do justice to every dialect. So the pronoun of the third person singular feminine can be pronounced as follows: se(e), sey, soi, etc. Only one of these variants can be found in the table. This also applies to all other pronouns.
Case | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||
Masculine | Neuter | Feminine | ||||||
Nominative | ik(ke)
ek(ke) |
wy | du
(j)y |
(j)y/
(j)it |
he | it/(h)et/öt
dat/det |
se/
he (just in Twente used) |
se/
süm |
Accusative/Objective | my/
mik/mek |
u(n)s/üsk | dy/
dik/dek/ ju |
(j)u(ch)/jük/
ink/ jem/jüm |
iänne/öne/
(h)em/hüm/him |
it/(h)et/öt
dat/det |
(h)er/(h)ör/
se |
jem/jüm/
(h)er/(h)ör/ se/ süm |
Dative (Assinghausen) | mey | us | dey | uch | iämme | iämme | iär | iänne |
Reflexive pronouns
While Old Saxon has lost the Germanic reflexive pronouns such as Old English and Old Frisian and instead resorts to the relevant third-person personal pronoun, modern Low German borrows reflexive pronouns from German. In Sauerland, it is conjugated as in Proto-Germanic and Icelandic. In addition, a distinction is made between the individual genders as well as individual and multiple people.
Person | East Frisian LG | Southern Westphalian | Vriezenveen | Islandic | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Objective | Accusative | Dative | Objektive | Accusative | Dative | Genetive | |||||
1. Singular | mi | miëck | mey | mii | meg | mér | mín | ||||
2. Singular | di | diëck | dey | dii | þig | þér | þín | ||||
3. Singular, Masculin | sük | siëck | sey | um | sig | sér | sín | ||||
3. Singular, Feminin | sük | siëck | sey/iärk | eer | sig | sér | sín | ||||
3. Singular, Neutral | sük | siëck | sey | um | sig | sér | sín | ||||
1. Plural | us | us | us | oons | okkur | okkur | okkar | ||||
2. Plural | ju | ugg | ugg | ůů | ykkur | ykkur | ykkar | ||||
3. Plural | sük | iärk | iärk | eer | sig | sér | sín |
Examples:
The respective translations consist only of cognates of the same origins. The sentences do not necessarily have to correspond semantically.
English | East Frisian LG | Southern Westphalian | Vjens | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
He washes himself the hands. | He wasket sük de hannen. | Hai wäsket sey dei hänne. | Hei wasket um de handen. | |||
She washes herself. | Se wasket sük. | Sei wasket iärk. | Zei wasket eer. | |||
He washes himself. | He wasket sük. | Hai wasket siëck. | Hei wasket um. | |||
They wash themselves. | Se wasken sük. | Sei wasket iärk. | Zei wasket eer. |
Verbs
[edit]In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. There are five tenses in Low German:[citation needed]present tense,preterite,perfect,andpluperfect,and in Mennonite Low German thepresent perfectwhich signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example, "Ekj sie jekomen","I am come ", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.
UnlikeDutch,High German, andsouthern Low German,the northern dialects form the past participle without the prefixge-,like theScandinavian languages,FrisianandEnglish.Compare northern Low Germanslapento the German pastparticiplegeschlafen.This pastparticipleis used with theauxiliary verbshewwen/hebben"to have" andwesen/sin/sien"to be". When the pastparticipleends with-enor in a few oft-used words likewest(been).
The conjugation patterns can vary greatly depending on the dialect. The more northern dialects are strongly influenced by German, while East Westphalian and especially Vjens have retained many ancient features.
verbs | briäken, "to break" | täin "to pull" | doun, "to do" | gaun, "to go" | helpen, "to help" | küren, "to speak" | willen, "to want/ to become" | kwuomen, "to come" | haulen, "to hold" | skräggen, "to shout" | skäilen, "to scold" | beskriieben, "to describe" | wasken, "to wash" | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | briäken | täin | doun | gaun | helpen | küren | willen | kwuomen | haulen | skräggen | skäilen | beskriieben | wasken | |||
Participle | Present | briäken | täin | doun | gaun | helpen | küren | willen | kwuomen | haulen | skräggen | skäilen | beskriieben | wasken | ||
Past | bruoken | tuogen | daun | gaun | holpen | kürt | wolt | kwuom | haulen | skrägget | skuolen | beskriben | wasken | |||
Indicative | Present | Singular | 1st person | briäke | tee | doo | goo | helpe | küre | will | kwuome | haule | skrägge | skäile | beskriiewe | waske |
2nd person | bräks | tüss | döss | gäis | helps | kürs | wüss | kümms | hölts | skrägges | skäils | beskrifs | waskes | |||
3rd person | briäk | tüt | dött | gäit | helpet | kürt | will | kümmp | hölt | skrägget | skäilt | beskrif | wasket | |||
Plural | briäket | teet | doot | goot | helpet | kürt | willt | kwuomet | hault | skrägget | skäilt | beskriiewet | wasket | |||
Past | Singular | 1st person | broik | toig | dää | göng | hölp | kürede | woll | kweimp | hoilt | skräggede | skoilt | beskreif | waskede | |
2nd person | broiks | toigs | dääs | göngs | hölpes | küredes | woss | kweimps | hoilts | skräggedes | skoils | beskreifs | waskedes | |||
3rd person | broik | toig | dää | göng | hölp | kürede | woll | kweimp | hoilt | skräggede | skoilt | beskreif | waskede | |||
Plural | broiken | toigen | dään | göngen | hölpen | küreden | wollen | kweimen | hoilen | skräggeden | skoilen | beskreiwen | waskeden | |||
Imperative | Singular | briäk | tee | dot | gong | help | kür | wuss | kwumm | haul | skrägge | skäil | beskriiew | waske | ||
Plural | briäket | teet | doot | goot | helpet | kürt | willt | kwuomet | hault | skrägget | skäilt | beskriiewet | wasket |
verbs | breken, "to break" | tehn "to pull" | doon, "to do" | gahn, "to go" | helpen, "to help" | snacken, "to speak" | willen, "to want/ to become" | kamen, "to come" | holen, "to carry" | schre'en, "to shout" | schellen, "to scold" | beschrieven, "to describe" | waschen, "to wash" | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | breken | tehn | doon | gahn | helpen | snacken | willen | kamen | holen | schre'en | schellen | beschrieven | waschen | |||
Participle | Present | breken | tehn | doon | gahn | helpen | snacken | willen | kamen | holen | schre'en | schellen | beschrieven | waschen | ||
Past | braken | tagen | dahn | gahn | hulpen | snackt | wullt | kamen | holen | schreet | schlellt | beschreven | wuschen | |||
Indicative | Present | Singular | 1st person | breek | teh | do | gah | help | snack | will | kaam | hool | schree | schell | beschriev | wasch |
2nd person | brickst | tühst | deist | geihst | helpst | snackst | willst | kummst | höllst | schreest | schellst | beschriffst | waschst | |||
3rd person | brickt | tüht | deit | geiht | helpt | snackt | will | kummt | höllt | schreet | schellt | beschrifft | wascht | |||
Plural | breekt | teht | doon | gaht | helpt | snackt | wölt | kaamt | hoolt | schreet | schellt | beschrievt | wascht | |||
Past | Singular | 1st person | bröök | töög | deed | güng | hölp | snack | wull | keem | höölen | schree | schell | beschreev | wüsch | |
2nd person | bröökst | töögst | deedst | güngst | hölpst | snackst | wullst | keemst | höölst | schreest | schellst | beschreevst | wüschst | |||
3rd person | bröök | töög | deed | güng | hölp | snack | wull | keem | hööl | schree | schell | beschreev | wüsch | |||
Plural | bröken | tögen | deden | güngen | hölpen | snacken | wullen | kemen | hölen | schreen | schellen | beschreven | wüschen | |||
Imperative | Singular | breek | teh | do | gah | help | snack | will | kaam | hool | schree | schell | beschriev | wasch | ||
Plural | breekt | teht | doot | gaht | helpt | snackt | wöölt | kamt | hoolt | schreet | schellt | beschrievt | wascht |
verbs | bräken, "to break" | dòůn, "to do" | góón, "to go" | helpen, "to help" | wilen, "to want; to become" | hoolen, "to carry" | wasken, "to wash" | biiten, "to bite" | baigen, "to salvage" | waiken, "to work" | biieven, "to quake" | visken, "to fish" | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | bräken | dòůn | góón | helpen | wilen | hoolen | wasken | biiten | baigen | waiken | biieven | visken | |||
Participle | Present | bräkend | dòůnd | góónd | helpend | wilend | hoolend | waskend | biitend | baigend | waikend | biievend | viskend | ||
Past | ebräken | edòòn | egóón | ehölpen | ewilt | ehoolen | ewösken | ebjiten | ebjörgen | ewaiket | ebiievet | evisket | |||
Indicative | Present | Singular | 1st person | bräke | dòůe | góó | helpe | wil | hoole | waske | biite | baige | waike | biieve | viske |
2nd person | brekst | dòůst | geist | helpst | wist | hóólst | waskest | bitst | baigst | waikst | biievst | viskest | |||
3rd person | brekt | dòůn | geiht | helpt | wil | hóólt | wasket | bit | baigt | waikt | biievt | visket | |||
Plural | bräkt | dòůt | góót | helpt | wilt | hoolt | wasket | biitt | baigt | waikt | biievt | visket | |||
Past | Singular | 1st person | brak | dee | göng | hölp | wól | höül | wöske | bjet | björg | waiken | biievde | viskede | |
2nd person | brakst | deest | göngst | hölpst | wóst | höülst | wöskest | bjetst | björgst | waikenst | biievdest | viskedest | |||
3rd person | brak | dee | göng | hölp | wól | höül | wöske | bjet | bjrörg | waiken | biievde | viskede | |||
Plural | brakken | deen | göngen | hölpen | wólen | höülen | wösken | bjeten | björgen | waiken | biievden | viskeden | |||
Imperative | Singular | bräk | dòůe | góó | help | ? | hoole | waske | biite | baige | waike | biieve | viske | ||
Plural | bräkt | dòůt | góót | helpt | wilt | hoolt | wasket | biitet | baigt | waikt | biievt | visket |
verbs | breeka, to break " | häwa, "to have" | wila, "to want/ to become" | måka, "to male" | bruuka, "to need" | raupa, "to call/ to shout" | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | breeka | häwa | wila | måka | bruuka | raupa | |||
Participle | Past | brooka | hat | wud | måkt | bruukt | roopa | ||
Indicative | Present | Singular | 1st person | breek | häw | wil | måk | bruuk | raup |
2nd person | breekst | häst | wist | mökst | bruukst | raupst | |||
3rd person | breekt | hät | wil | mök | bruukt | raupt | |||
Plural | breeka | häwa | wila | måka | bruuka | raupa | |||
Past | Singular | 1st person | braik | haar | wu | maik | brüükt | raip | |
2nd person | braikst | haast | wust | maikst | brüükst | raipst | |||
3rd Person | braik | haar | wu | maik | brüükt | raip | |||
Plural | braika | haara | wula | maika | brüüka | raipa |
Synthetic subjunctive verb forms are mostly identical to the indicative forms of the past tense and the pluperfect tense - much like Dutch and English. It is thus only recognizable from the context of a sentence.[88]It is often formed periphrastically by using the helping verbswoor,schull,wull,anddee:"Ik woor/wöör/worr/wurr mi freuen, wenn Vader noch lang leev" (I would be glad if father still lived for a long time).[89]
Low German subjunctive 1/
English reported speech |
Low German subjunctive 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
English Conditional 2 | English Conditional 3 | |||
Low German | He see to mi,
he kaam nu. |
He see to mi,
he harr al eten. |
Weer ik riek,
deed ik ju en Pony köpen, |
Harr ik de tied hat,
harr ik ju hulpen. |
English | He said to me,
he came now. |
He said to me,
he had already eaten. |
If I were rich,
I would buy you a Pony. |
If I had had the time,
I would have helped you. |
However, compared to most other dialects, the Westphalian dialect has preserved an extremely complex conjugation of strong verbs with subjunctive:[90][91]
Infinitive | Simple Past | Westphalian
subjunctive 2 |
---|---|---|
suin (to be) | Ik was (I was) | ik wöre (I would be) |
bluiven (to stay) | he blaiw (I stayed) | he bliewe (he would stay) |
kriupen (to crawl) | he kraup (he crawled) | he krüäpe (he would crawl) |
soöken (to search) | he sochte (he searched) | he söchte (he would search) |
wieten (to know) | he wus (he knew) | he wüsse (he would know) |
There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language. It is formed withwesen(to be), the prepositionan(at) anddat(the/it).
Low German | Dutch | English | |
---|---|---|---|
Main form | Ik bün an't Maken. | Ik ben aan het maken. | I am making. |
Main form 2 | Ikdomaken.1 | – | – |
Alternative form | Ik bün an'n Maken.2 | Ik ben aan het maken. | – |
Alternative form 2 | Ik bün maken.3 | Ik ben makende. | Iammaking. |
- 1Instead ofwesen, sien(to be) Saxon usesdoon(to do) to make to present continuous.
- 2Many see the'nas an old dative ending ofdatwhich only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most frequently-used form in colloquial Low German.
- 3This form is archaic and mostly unknown to Low German speakers. It is the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive:makenis either "to make" or "making".
In the very south of the East Westphalian language area, the original gerund of the West Germanic languages has been preserved:[92]
Infinitiv form | Gerund form |
---|---|
maken (to make) | to makene |
kuoken (to cook) | to kuokene |
schniggen (to snow) | to schniggene |
Adjectives
[edit]The forms of Low German's adjectives are distinct from other closely related languages such as German and English. These forms fall somewhere in between these two languages. As in German, the adjectives in Low German may make a distinction between singular and plural to agree with the nouns that they modify,[93]as well as between the three genders, between the nominative and oblique cases and between indefinite (weak) and definite (strong) forms.[94]However, there is a lot of variation in that respect and some or all of these distinctions may also be absent, so that a single undeclined form of the adjective can occur in all cases, as in English. This is especially common in the neuter.[94]If the adjective is declined, the pattern tends to be as follows:
Gender | Nominative | Oblique | Gloss | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | indefinite singular | en starke(n) Kerl | en(en) starke(n) Kerl | 'a strong man' |
indefinite plural | starke Kerls | starke Kerls | 'strong men' | |
definite singular | de starke Kerl | den starken Kerl | 'the strong man' | |
definite plural | de starken Kerls | de starken Kerls | 'the strong men' | |
Feminine | indefinite singular | en(e) smucke Deern | en(e) smucke Deern | 'a pretty girl' |
indefinite plural | smucke Deerns | smucke Deerns | 'pretty girls' | |
definite singular | de smucke Deern | de smucke Deern | 'the pretty girl' | |
definite plural | de smucken Deerns | de smucken Deerns | 'the pretty girls' | |
Neuter | indefinite singular | en lütt((e)t) Land | en lütt((e)t) Land | 'a little country' |
indefinite plural | lütt Lannen | lütt Lannen | 'little countries' | |
definite singular | dat lütte Land | dat lütte Land | 'the little country' | |
definite plural | de lütten Lannen | de lütten Lannen | 'the little countries' |
As mentioned above, alternative undeclined forms such asdat lütt Land,de lütt Lannen,en stark Kerl,de stark Kerl,stark Kerls,de stark Kerlsetc. can occur.
Nouns
[edit]The Westphalian and Eastphalian dialects have also preserved the so-calleddative-e, adding a final -e to masculine and neuter nouns in the dative case.[95]
Expression with
objective case |
East Westphalian | Münster
Westphalian |
Westfrisian | Dutch | German |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
on the desk | up 'n diske | up den disk | - | - | auf dem Tisch |
on the field | up 'n feile | up dat feld | op it fjild | op het veld | auf dem Feld |
in water | in 'n watere | in dat water | in it wetter | in het water | im Wasser |
on the market | up 'n markede | up den market | op de merk | op de markt | auf dem Markt |
Phonology
[edit]Consonants
[edit]Labial | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar/ Uvular |
Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stop | voiceless | p | t | (tʃ) | k | ||
voiced | b | d | ɡ | ||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | (ç) | x | h |
voiced | v | z | (ʒ) | (ɣ) | |||
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
Trill | r | (ʀ) | |||||
Approximant | lateral | l | |||||
plain | j |
- A common feature of the Low German speaking dialects, is theretractionof /sz/ to[s̠z̠].[96][97]
- The sound [ɣ] can occur as an allophone of /ɡ/ among dialects.
- /r/ and /x/ can have allophones as [ɾ] and [ç].
- /r/ can be articulated as uvular [ʀ] among Northern dialects and younger speakers.
- The sound /j/ can also be realized as fricative or affricate sounds [ʝ~ʑ~ʒ], [dʒ], in word-initial position.[98][99]
Vowels
[edit]Front | Central | Back | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
unrounded | rounded | |||||||
short | long | short | long | short | long | short | long | |
Close | ɪ | iː | ʏ | yː | ʊ | uː | ||
Close-mid | eː | øː | ə | oː | ||||
Open-mid | ɛ | ɛː | œ | œː | (ɐ) | ɔ | ɔː | |
Open | a | aː | (ɑ) | (ɒː) |
- [ɒ] and [ɐ] can occur as allophones of /a/ and /r/.[98]
- Vowel backness of /a/ to [ɑ] may also occur among dialects.[100]
Front | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|
Close | ia,iɛ,iə | ua,uɛ,uɔ | |
Close-mid | eˑi,ea | øˑi,(øa) | oˑu,oa |
Open-mid | ɛɪ | œɪ | ɔʊ,ɔˑi,ɔˑy |
Open | aˑɪ,aˑi | aˑʊ,aˑu |
- [ɑ] can be heard as an allophone of /a/ within diphthongs.
- Long phonemes /eː/, /øː/, /oː/, occur mostly in the Geest dialects, while in other dialects, they may be realized as diphthongs.[101][99]
Writing system
[edit]Low German is written using theLatin alphabet.There is no official standardorthography,though there are several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines. Those in theNetherlandsare mostly based onDutchorthography and may vary per dialect region, and those inGermanymostly follow German orthography. To the latter group belongs the orthography devised byJohannes Sass.It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level.[102]Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this.[citation needed]Most of these systems aim at representing thephonetic(allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations.[citation needed]
Spoken examples
[edit]
Notable Low German writers and performers
[edit]- Heinrich Bandlow
- Hans-Friedrich Blunck
- John Brinckman
- De fofftig Penns
- Gorch Fock
- Friedrich Wilhelm Grimme(Westphalian: Sauerländisch)
- Klaus Groth(Dithmarsisch)
- August Hermann
- Joachim Mähl
- Johann Meyer (Dithmarsisch)
- Martha Müller-Grählert
- Fritz Reuter(Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch)
- Willem Schröder
- Julius Stinde
- Rudolf Tarnow
- Augustin Wibbelt (Westphalian: Münsterländisch)
- Wilhelm Wieben
- Hans-Jürgen Massaquoi
- Normaal
- Daniël Lohues
Middle Low Germanauthors:
Plautdietschauthors:
Low German culture
[edit]As an important identity-forming element, the Low German language has been taught in schools in northern Germany for several years. In 2023, for example, the first class in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania graduated in the subject Low German.[103]The social position of Low German has improved significantly in recent years and enjoys a high level of prestige, especially in modern cities such as Hamburg and Bremen.[104]
Numerous formats in Low German are also offered onNorddeutscher Rundfunk.[105]
The television moderator Yared Dibaba has been campaigning for the preservation of Low German languages for years.[106]
The internet magazineWearldspråke(alternatively also: Wearldsproake) is run by the musician and language activist Martin ter Denge.[107]
In 2020 the film "The Marriage Escape" was released, which is mostly inTweants.[108]
Linguistically, historically and culturally there are close contacts with the Netherlands, Denmark and other predominantly Protestant inhabitants of the North and Baltic Seas such as Great Britain, the rest of Scandinavia and the Baltic states. In German usage, for example on Norddeutscher Rundfunk, northern Germany is occasionally viewed as part of Northern Europe, while the remaining part of Germany is less questioned as belonging to Central Europe.[109]Close relationships also existed in the field of literature and poetry, for example the Norwegian Thidrekssaga (13th century) is based, according to its own information, on "Low German" and "Saxon" templates.[110]
However, there are numerous other cultural and historical features that are common to the entire Low German-speaking area, such as the special architectural style of the "Low German hall house".[111]These houses are often provided with traditional gable decorations, which are also known under the terms "Hengst" and "Hors".[112]
The Germanic tribe of the Saxons, along with numerous other influencing factors like Slavic people, is considered one of the cultural and historical ancestors of the Northern Germans, so that there are still many points of connection to the Anglo-Saxons in folklore. The name of the cityBünde( "Bund": German for alliance) is said to allude to the alliance the brothersHengest and Horsaonce made there and then settled in what is now England. Modern scholars regard Hengest and Horsa as mythical figures.[113]
-
Coat of Arms of Bünde
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Fachhallenhaus_Verbreitung.png/220px-Fachhallenhaus_Verbreitung.png)
-
Low German House in Insernhagen
-
Gable jewelry
-
Low German House in Rastede
Since the Brothers Grimm were friends with the von Haxterhausen family, numerous fairy tales by the Grimm children and household tales come from the Westphalian and thus Low German cultural area. However, there are a remarkable number of Grimm's fairy tales that are written in Low German in their original version, which is evidence of the high level of identification that North Germans have with their language.[114][115]
-
“Dat Erdmänneken “, „The Gnome “
-
“Dat Wettlopen twischen den Hasen un den Swinegel up de lütje Heide bi Buxtehude “; “The race between the Hare and the hedgehog “
-
“Von den Fischer und siine Fru “, “The Fisherman and his wife"
-
“Oll Rinkrank “, “Old Rinkrank “
-
“Van den Machandelboom “, “The Juniper Tree “
There are also numerous fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm, which come from northern Germany, but are not or only partially in the original version in Low German.[116]
-
“Sneewittchen “, “Snow White “
-
“Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten “, “Town musicians of Bremen “
-
“König Drosselbart “, “King Thrushbeard “
-
“Die goldene Gans “, “The golden Goose “
Even in Schleswig-Holstein, in the former settlement area of the Angles, one finds solitude in the storytelling tradition. “Grendel” is a Schleswig-Holstein dialect expression for a monster living in swamps, as it appears in the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf poem.[117]
Although there are no secession efforts in northern Germany, some are making efforts to strengthen northern German identity. In the 80s a flag was designed for Lower Germany, which is more or less widespread in northern Germany and is very heavily criticized, because their design is similar to the official flag of the Vepsians in Russia.[118]
-
Noordlandflagg “Flag of the Northern Lands “
See also
[edit]- 1614 Low German Bible
- Bible translations into German
- Friar Rush
- Hamborger Veermaster
- The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)
- Low German (school subject)
- Meuse-Rhenish
- Moin
- Ohnsorg-Theater
- Masurian dialects
- Low Valyrian
Notes
[edit]- ^2.2–5 million in northern Germany and 2.15 million in eastern Netherlands
- ^"Low German" is known by the following other names in other languages. It is known in the Low German of Germany asPlattdütsch,Plattdüütsch,Plattdütsk,Plattdüütsk,Plattduitsk(South-Westphalian),Plattduitsch(Eastphalian),Plattdietsch(Low Prussian), orNeddersassisch,orNedderdüütsch; in theLow Saxon of the NetherlandsasNedersaksisch; in (Standard)High GermanasPlattdeutsch,Niedersächsisch,Niederdeutsch(in a stricter sense) orPlatt,pronounced[plat] (which can also meandialectand refer to non-Low German varieties); inDutchasSaksisch,Nedersaksisch,Platduits,Nederduits[ˈneːdərdœyts] (in a stricter sense); inDanishasPlattysk; plus, other dialectal variants exist.
- ^Almost all settlements and physiogeographical features in East Germany have a Slavic etymology, e.g. cities likeBerlin,Leipzig,Dresden,Rostock,LübeckandSchwerin,rivers like theRyckor theRecknitz,or islands likeFehmarn.
References
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Die Frage, ob unter deutsch rechtlich ausschließlich die hochdeutsche oder auch dieniederdeutsche Sprachesubsumiert wird, wird juristisch uneinheitlich beantwortet: Während derBGHin einer Entscheidung zuGebrauchsmustereinreichungbeimDeutschen Patent- und Markenamtin plattdeutscher Sprache das Niederdeutsche einer Fremdsprache gleichstellt („Niederdeutsche (plattdeutsche) Anmeldeunterlagen sind im Sinn des § 4a Abs. 1 Satz 1GebrMGnicht in deutscher Sprache abgefaßt. “– BGH-Beschluss vom 19. November 2002, Az. X ZB 23/01), ist nach dem Kommentar von Foerster/Friedersen/Rohde zu § 82a des Landesverwaltungsgesetzes Schleswig-Holstein unter Verweis auf Entscheidungen höherer Gerichte zu § 184 des Gerichtsverfassungsgesetzes seit 1927 (OLG Oldenburg, 10. Oktober 1927 – K 48, HRR 1928, 392) unter dem Begriff deutsche Sprache sowohl Hochdeutsch wie auch Niederdeutsch zu verstehen. - ^Unterschiedliche Rechtsauffassungen, ob Niederdeutsch in Deutschland insgesamt Amtssprache ist – siehe dazu:Amtssprache (Deutschland);zumindest aber inSchleswig-HolsteinundMecklenburg-Vorpommern
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- ^Los Menonitas en BoliviaArchived3 December 2013 at theWayback MachineCNN en Español
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- ^Nielsen, Hans Frede (31 December 2001),"48. Frisian and the Grouping of the Older Germanic Languages",Handbuch des Friesischen / Handbook of Frisian Studies,DE GRUYTER, pp. 512–523,doi:10.1515/9783110946925.512,ISBN978-3-484-73048-9,retrieved5 August2023
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- ^Sprachenchartabericht of the regional government of Schleswig-Holstein for 2016Archived11 October 2017 at theWayback Machine,p. 14 f.
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Bibliography
[edit]- Adams, Douglas Q. (1975), "The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe",Language,51(2), Linguistic Society of America: 282–292,doi:10.2307/412855,JSTOR412855
External links
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- http://www.plattmaster.de/
- http://www.platt-online.de/
- http://www.niederdeutschzentrum.de/
- https://www.deutsch-plattdeutsch.de/
Online dictionaries
[edit]- Plattmakers dictionarywith more than 20,000 word entries, with translations and interface available in several languages (English too)
- Dictionary of the Drents dialect(Dutch)
- Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary
- Dictionary in the Sass Orthography(German)
Information
[edit]- Nu is de Welt platt!International resources in and about Low German
- Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German),an introductory grammar in English and German
- Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen,by Olaf Bordasch
- Mönsterlänner Plat,by Klaus-Werner Kahl
- Plattdeutsch heute
Organisations
[edit]- IJsselacademie(Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
- Staring Instituut(Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
- Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte(Friesland, the Netherlands)
- SONT(General, the Netherlands)
- Oostfreeske Taal(Eastern Friesland, Germany)
- Diesel – dat oostfreeske Bladdje(Eastern Friesland, Germany)
- Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V.(General, Germany)