MD–PhD
![]() | The examples and perspective in this articlemay not represent aworldwide viewof the subject.(February 2015) |
TheDoctor of Medicine–Doctor of Philosophy(MD–PhD) is a dual doctoral program forphysician–scientists,combining the professional training of theDoctor of Medicinedegree with the research program of theDoctor of Philosophydegree.
In theUnited States,theNational Institutes of Healthcurrently provides 50 medical schools withMedical Scientist Training Programgrants that support the training of students in MD–PhD programs through tuition and stipend allowances. These programs are often competitive, with some admitting as few as two students per academic year.[1]
TheMCATscore andGPAof MD–PhD matriculants are often higher than MD only matriculants.[2][3]
Training programs
[edit]In theUnited States,MD–PhD degrees can be obtained through dual-degree programs offered at some medical schools. The idea for an integrated training program began atCase Western Reserve University School of Medicinein 1956[4]and quickly spread to other research medical schools.
Training structure
[edit]When students enter an MD–PhD program, they typically complete the pre-clinical curriculum of medical school (2 years), transition into PhD graduate training, and finally complete clinical rotations (2 years). In the U.S., MD–PhD training during medical school is extensive and lengthy, lasting eight or more years
Traditional PhD training involves combining course content knowledge and research skills to produce original research, culminating in a doctoral dissertation. Typically, PhD-degree completion takes 4–6 years. The MD–PhD physician-scientist workforce is a relatively small group of well-trained professionals with the research skills to address clinical and basic science research questions aimed at improving patient care.[5][6]
Post-doctoral Opportunities for MD–PhD Graduates
[edit]Most MD–PhD graduates enter academia, with their primary appointments in clinical departments. Among recent graduates, 95% continued clinical training, while 5% pursued postdoctoral fellowships without clinical training. The most popular residency choice was internal medicine (29%), followed by surgery (11%).[7][8]
Approximately 80% of graduates were employed full-time in academic centers (1,625, or 67%), research institutes such as the NIH (105, or 4%), or in industry (189, or 8%), aligning with the goals of MD–PhD training. The remaining 16% were in private practice.[5]
Attrition rate
[edit]Despite variations in attrition rates among different schools, further investigation is needed to understand the underlying causes. For instance, the average attrition rate for students who entered programs between 1998 and 2007 was 10%, comparable to the 12% reported for MSTP-funded trainees who matriculated in the 1980s. However, this rate is considerably lower than the 29% attrition reported in 2008 by Andriole and colleagues. Notably, attrition rates varied significantly among different schools, warranting closer scrutiny to establish cause.[9][10]
According to a 2014 study by Jeffe et al., among those MD–PhD program enrollees who either graduated with MD–PhD degrees or withdrew/were dismissed from medical school, certain factors were associated with attrition. Specifically:
- Students who matriculated at non-MSTP-funded medical schools were more likely to withdraw or be dismissed.
- Underrepresented minority (URM) race/ethnicity was also associated with higher attrition rates.
- Students over 28 years of age at matriculation were more likely to leave the program.
- Gender and premedical debt were not independently associated with overall attrition, MD-only graduation, or medical-school withdrawal/dismissal.[11]
Funding and financial compensation
[edit]Typically, MD–PhD programs, cover medical school tuition and provide a stipend. MD-PhD programs receive funding from various sources, including institutional grants, individual fellowships, and support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH funding, includingMedical Scientist Training Program(MSTP) grants, has played a crucial role in standardizing training approaches and ensuring program quality.[5]
Notable MD–PhD physician–scientists
[edit]- Barry Blumberg– Recipient of the 1976Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinealong withDaniel Gajdusekfor their work on the humanpriondiseasekuru
- Francis Collins– Former Director of theNational Institutes of Healthand former leader of theHuman Genome Project
- James DiCarlo–computational neuroscientistand Head of theMITDepartment of Brain and Cognitive Sciences
- Alfred G. Gilman– Recipient of the 1994Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinealong with Martin Rodbell for their discoveries regarding G-proteins
- Robert Satcher–Physician,chemical engineer,andNASA astronautwho became the first orthopedic surgeon in space duringSTS-129
- Vilayanur S. Ramachandran–Neuroscientistknown for his work in the fields ofbehavioral neurologyand visualpsychophysics
- David Satcher– 16thSurgeon General of the United States
- Chi Van Dang– Director of theAbramson Cancer Centerof theUniversity of Pennsylvania
- Christopher Duntsch– Neurosurgeon sentenced to life in prison for intentionally botching 32 surgeries that killed two patients and paralyzed two others[12]
- Gregg L. Semenza- Pediatrician and Professor of Genetic Medicine and Nobel Prize Winner in Medicine, subsequently retracted numerous papers.[13]
- Joseph Ladapo- Surgeon General of Florida, known for spreading misinformation.[14][15]
- Bruce D. Perry-Psychiatristand researcher in children's mental health and neuroscience, known for developing the Neurosequential Model.
- Paul Farmer- Global health physician and medical anthropologist.[16]
- Joshua A. Gordon - Former Director of theNational Institute of Mental Health.[17]
- Karl Deisseroth- Neuroscientist, Psychiatrist, D.H. Chen Professor ofBioengineeringand of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences atStanford University,and Investigator of theHoward Hughes Medical Institute,member of the advisory committee on theBRAIN Initiative.[18]
- Emery N. Brown- Professor ofComputational Neuroscienceand Health Sciences and Technology, atMassachusetts Institute of Technology,and theWarren M. ZapolProfessor ofAnaesthesia,ofHarvard Medical School,atMassachusetts General Hospital,member of the advisory committee on theBRAIN Initiative.[19]
- Ezekiel Emanuel- Americanoncologist,bioethicist,and senior fellow at theCenter for American Progress.Formerly a member of theCOVID-19 Advisory Board.
- Arvid Carlsson-Swedishneuropharmacologist,received the 2000Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinefor respective research on the functioning of signal transduction proteins in learning, memory, and movement.
- Stephen Waxman- American Neuroscientist andNeurologist,Bridget M. Flaherty Professor of Neurology and of Neuroscience; Director, Center for Neuroscience and Regeneration Research
See also
[edit]- Biomedical scientist
- DPT-MPH
- Association of American Medical Colleges
- American Physician Scientists Association
References
[edit]- ^"Merge Interests in Science, Medicine With an M.D.–Ph.D."usnews.com.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-09-06.Retrieved2015-08-29.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2018-01-04.Retrieved2018-01-03.
{{cite web}}
:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^"MCAT Scores and GPAs for Matriculants to U.S. MD-Granting Medical Schools by Gender, 2018-2019 through 2023-2024".Retrieved7 July2024.
- ^"CWRU Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP)".cwru.edu. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-10.Retrieved2012-06-20.
- ^abcBrass LF, Akabas MH, Burnley LD, Engman DM, Wiley CA, Andersen OS. Are MD-PhD programs meeting their goals? An analysis of career choices made by graduates of 24 MD-PhD programs. Acad Med. 2010 Apr;85(4):692-701. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181d3ca17. PMID 20186033; PMCID: PMC4441397.
- ^Chakraverty D, Jeffe DB, Dabney KP, Tai RH. EXPLORING REASONS THAT U.S. MD-PHD STUDENTS ENTER AND LEAVE THEIR DUAL-DEGREE PROGRAMS. Int J Dr Stud. 2020;15:461-483. doi: 10.28945/4622. PMID 33815015; PMCID: PMC8018685.
- ^Zemlo TR; Garrison HH; Partridge NC; Ley TJ (2000)."The physician-scientist: career issues and challenges at the year 2000".FASEB J.14(2): 221–30.doi:10.1096/fasebj.14.2.221.PMID10657979.S2CID1256003.Archivedfrom the original on 2009-06-26.
- ^Ley TJ; Rosenberg LE (2005)."The physician-scientist career pipeline in 2005: build it, and they will come".JAMA.294(11): 1343–51.doi:10.1001/jama.294.11.1343.PMID16174692.
- ^Jeffe, D. B., Andriole, D. A., & Wathington, H. D. (2014). Attrition rates of residents entering US MD–PhD programs in the biomedical sciences. JAMA, 312(20), 2086-2088.
- ^Andriole, D. A., Whelan, A. J., & Jeffe, D. B. (2008). Characteristics and career intentions of the emerging MD/PhD workforce. JAMA, 300(10), 1165-1173.
- ^Jeffe DB, Andriole DA, Wathington HD, Tai RH. Educational outcomes for students enrolled in MD-PhD programs at medical school matriculation, 1995-2000: a national cohort study. Acad Med. 2014 Jan;89(1):84-93. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000071. PMID 24280845; PMCID: PMC3874256.
- ^"Dr. Duntsch defense expert: 'The only way this happens is the entire system fails the patients',"WFAA, February 13, 2017, retrieved February 21, 2017.
- ^"Nobel Prize winner Gregg Semenza retracts another study".Chemical & Engineering News.Retrieved2023-11-07.
- ^Thorp, H. Holden (2022-10-21)."Remember, do no harm?".Science.378(6617): 231.Bibcode:2022Sci...378..231T.doi:10.1126/science.adf3072.ISSN0036-8075.PMID36228020.
- ^"US agencies debunk Florida surgeon general's vaccine claims".AP News.2023-03-11.Retrieved2023-11-07.
- ^"In Memoriam: Paul Farmer | Harvard Medical School".hms.harvard.edu.2022-02-21.Retrieved2023-11-07.
- ^"NIMH » About the Director".www.nimh.nih.gov.2023-10-18.Retrieved2023-11-08.
- ^"Karl Deisseroth's Profile | Stanford Profiles".profiles.stanford.edu.Retrieved2023-11-08.
- ^"Emery N. Brown".Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology.2022-08-12.Retrieved2023-11-08.