Bolivian hemorrhagic fever
| Machupo mammarenavirus | |
|---|---|
Virus classification
| |
| (unranked): | Virus |
| Realm: | Riboviria |
| Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
| Phylum: | Negarnaviricota |
| Class: | Ellioviricetes |
| Order: | Bunyavirales |
| Family: | Arenaviridae |
| Genus: | Mammarenavirus |
| Species: | Machupo mammarenavirus
|
| Synonyms[1] | |
|
Machupo virus | |
| Bolivian hemorrhagic fever | |
|---|---|
| Specialty | Infectious disease |
Bolivian hemorrhagic fever(BHF), also known asblack typhusorOrdog Fever,is ahemorrhagic feverandzoonoticinfectious diseaseoriginating inBoliviaafter infection byMachupo mammarenavirus.[2]
BHF was first identified in 1963 as an ambisenseRNA virusof theArenaviridaefamily,[3][4]by a research group led byKarl Johnson.The mortality rate is estimated at 5 to 30 percent. Due to itspathogenicity,Machupo virus requiresBiosafety LevelFour conditions, the highest level.[5]
During the period between February and March 2007, some 20 suspected BHF cases (3 fatal) were reported to the Servicio Departamental de Salud (SEDES) inBeni Department,Bolivia. In February 2008, at least 200 suspected new cases (12 fatal) were reported to SEDES.[6]In November 2011, a second case was confirmed near the departmental capital ofTrinidad,and a serosurvey was conducted to determine the extent of Machupo virus infections in the department. A SEDES expert involved in the survey expressed his concerns about the expansion of the virus to other provinces outside the endemic regions ofMamoréandIténez provinces.[7][8]
Epidemiology
[edit]History
[edit]The disease was first encountered in 1962, in the Bolivian village of San Joaquín, hence the name "Bolivian" Hemorrhagic Fever. When initial investigations failed to find an arthropod carrier, other sources were sought before finally determining that the disease was carried by infected mice. Although mosquitoes were not the cause as originally suspected, the extermination of mosquitoes using DDT to prevent malaria proved to be indirectly responsible for the outbreak in that the accumulation of DDT in various animals along the food chain led to a shortage of cats in the village; subsequently, a mouse plague erupted in the village, leading to an epidemic.[9]
Vectors
[edit]Thevectoris thelarge vesper mouse(Calomys callosus), arodentindigenous to northern Bolivia. Infected animals are asymptomatic and shed the virus in excreta, thereby infecting humans. Evidence of person-to-person transmission of BHF exists but is believed to be rare.[10]
Symptoms
[edit]Theinfectionhas a slow onset withfever,malaise,headacheandmyalgia,very similar toMalariasymptoms.Petechiae(blood spots) on the upper body and bleeding from thenoseand gums are observed when the disease progresses to thehemorrhagicphase, usually within seven days of onset.[10]Severe hemorrhagic or neurologic symptoms are observed in about one third of patients. Neurologic symptoms involve tremors, delirium, and convulsions. The mortality rate is about 25%.[11]
Prevention
[edit]Measures to reduce contact between the vesper mouse and humans may have contributed to limiting the number of outbreaks, with no cases identified between 1973 and 1994. Although there are no cures or vaccine for the disease, a vaccine developed for the genetically relatedJunín viruswhich causesArgentine hemorrhagic feverhas shown evidence of cross-reactivity to Machupo virus, and may therefore be an effectiveprophylacticmeasure for people at high risk of infection. Post infection (and providing that the person survives the infection), those that have contracted BHF are usually immune to further infection of the disease.[10]
Weaponization
[edit]Bolivian hemorrhagic fever was one of three hemorrhagic fevers and one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potentialbiological weaponsbefore the nation suspended its biological weapons program in 1969.[12]Albert Nickel, a 53-year old animal caretaker atFort Detrick,died in 1964 from the disease after being bitten by an infected mouse. Nickel Place, on Fort Detrick, is named in his honor. It was also under research by the Soviet Union, under theBiopreparatbureau.[13]
Vaccine research
[edit]Investigational vaccines exist for Argentine hemorrhagic fever and RVF; however, neither is approved by FDA or commonly available in the United States.[14]
The structure of the attachment glycoprotein has been determined by X-ray crystallography and this glycoprotein is likely to be an essential component of any successful vaccine.[15]
References
[edit]- ^"ICTV Taxonomy history:Machupo mammarenavirus".International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).Retrieved28 January2019.
- ^Public Health Agency of Canada:Machupo Virus Pathogen Safety Data Sheet,http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/machupo-eng.php,Date Modified: 2011-02-18.
- ^"Machupo".Retrieved2009-01-22.
- ^Webb PA, Johnson KM, Mackenzie RB, Kuns ML (July 1967). "Some characteristics of Machupo virus, causative agent of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever".Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.16(4): 531–8.doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1967.16.531.PMID4378149.
- ^Center for Food Security & Public Health and Institute for International Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Iowa State University:Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers Caused by Arenaviruses,http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/viral_hemorrhagic_fever_arenavirus.pdf,last updated: February 23, 2010.
- ^Aguilar PV, Carmago W, Vargas J, Guevara C, Roca Y, Felices V, et al. Reemergence of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever, 2007–2008 [letter]. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet] 2009 Sep. Available fromhttp://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/9/09-0017.htm.Accessed 2 Dec 2011.
- ^"Caso confirmado de fiebre hemorrágica alerta a autoridades benianas,"Los Tiempos.com,"Caso confirmado de fiebre hemorrágica alerta a autoridades benianas".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-15.Retrieved2012-11-29.,16/11/2011.
- ^"SEDES movilizado para controlar brote de fiebre hemorrágica en Beni; También se Capacita a Los Comunarios y Estudiantes,"Lost Tiempos.com,"SEDES movilizado para controlar brote de fiebre hemorrágica en Beni".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-12-01.Retrieved2012-11-29.,30/11/2011.
- ^Medical Microbiology 2nd edition; Mims et al. Mosby publishing 1998, p 371
- ^abcKilgore, et al.,(1995).
- ^Patterson M, Grant A, Paessler S (2014)."Epidemiology and pathogenesis of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever".Current Opinion in Virology.5:82–90.doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2014.02.007.PMC4028408.PMID24636947.
- ^"Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present",James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies,Middlebury College,April 9, 2002, accessed November 14, 2008.
- ^Alibek, Ken and Steven Handelman (1999),Biohazard:The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It,Random House,ISBN0-385-33496-6.
- ^Shoemaker T, Choi M."Travelers' Health: Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers".CDC.Retrieved15 September2020.
- ^Bowden, Thomas A.; Crispin, Max; Graham, Stephen C.; Harvey, David J.; Grimes, Jonathan M.; Jones, E. Yvonne; Stuart, David I. (2009-08-15)."Unusual Molecular Architecture of the Machupo Virus Attachment Glycoprotein".Journal of Virology.83(16): 8259–8265.doi:10.1128/JVI.00761-09.ISSN0022-538X.PMC2715760.PMID19494008.
Bibliography
[edit]- Kilgore PE, Peters CJ, Mills JN, et al. (1995)."Prospects for the control of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever".Emerging Infect. Dis.1(3): 97–100.doi:10.3201/eid0103.950308.PMC2626873.PMID8903174.
- Medical Microbiology 2nd Edition Mims et al. Mosby Publishing 1998 p 371