Manchurian nationalism
Manchurian nationalismorManchu nationalism(simplified Chinese:Mãn châu dân tộc chủ nghĩa;traditional Chinese:Mãn tộc dân tộc chủ nghĩa) refers to theethnic nationalismof theManchu peopleor theterritorial nationalismof the inhabitants ofManchuria,regardless of ethnic origin.
Overview
[edit]While rulingChina proper,the Manchu-ledQing dynastyhad promoted a common, "Manchufying" identity among members of theEight Banners,its primarymilitary forces.Manchus were thus strongly associated with the Banner system, even though there wereMongolandHan ChineseBannermen as well. The Banner identity was not yet racial or national, but still strongly divided the mostly Manchu Banner people from the primarily Han Chinese civilians of the Qing Empire. This divide grew with the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1912, and the foundation of theRepublic of China.[1]Thereafter, ethnic identity grew greatly in importance, and the Banner people had to decide whether to identify as Manchu, Han Chinese, or Mongol. Many of Mongol or Han Chinese ethnic origin opted to be classified as Manchu, especially in northern China, and the descendants of the Bannermen were generally called Manzu ( "Manchu ethnic group" ) from then on.[2]
As supporters of the old Qing dynasty, the Banner people (or Manchu-associated groups) were disempowered and discriminated against in the new Republic.[3]Many Qing nobles thus started to conspire against the new authorities, and the idea of a Manchu/Manchurian nationalism grew in importance due to this development. One of the first attempts to create a Manchu polity was byShanqi,thePrince Su,who tried to create a separatist state inInner Mongoliawith Japanese help in 1912. His venture was not driven by nationalism, however, but by a desire to see the monarchy underPuyirestored.[4]In general, anti-Republican groups founded by Banner people, most prominently theRoyalist Party,were initially more motivated bymonarchism,conservatism,andrevisionismthan Manchu/Manchurian nationalism.[5]Manchurian nationalism and independence were heavily promoted by theEmpire of Japan,however, whose aim was to weaken and divide China. The JapaneseKwantung Armywas already attempting to use the Royalist Party andZhang Zuolin(who claimed descent from Han Chinese Bannermen) as early as 1916 to promote Manchurian independence.[6]Following theJapanese invasion of Manchuriain 1931, Qing prince and Royalist Party associatePuweitravelled toShenyangand called for the "Manchus to govern Manchuria" in cooperation with Japan. The Japanese did not accept his self-proclamation as leader of the Manchurian independence movement, however, and sidelined him after the foundation ofManchukuo.[7]
The major and opportunistic involvement of Japan in the movement for Manchurian independence has led historian David Egler to describe Manchurian nationalism as "artificial".[8]He argued that it was for the most part a propaganda tool to justify the Japanese intervention, occupation, and colonisation of Manchuria under the cornerstone of "minzoku kyowa" (racial harmony) between Manchu, Han Chinese, Japanese and others in the region.[9]With the foundation of Manchukuo, Manchurian nationalism became a territorial or inter-ethnic nationalism of all people living in Manchuria,[10]and was no longer limited to Manchu people.
Proclaimed Manchukuo government-in-exile
[edit]Manchukuo Government | |
|---|---|
| Anthem:National Anthem of Manchukuo | |
 Claimed territory of the "Manchukuo Government" | |
| Capital | Hong Kong,Taipei(provisional) Changchun,Harbin(proclaimed) |
| Official languages | Japanese Manchu Mandarin Mongolian Korean Russian |
| Religion | State Shinto |
| Demonym(s) | Manchurian |
| Government | Government-in-exile |
• Emperor | Kangde |
• Head of Regency Council | Arslan Sathak |
| Establishment | |
• Manchukuo Temporary Government formed | 2004 |
• Manchukuo Government formed | 2019 |
Website https://manchustate.org | |
TheManchukuo Government(known as theManchukuo Temporary Governmentuntil 2019), commonly known asManchuria,is an organization established in 2004 inHong Kong.[11]On its website, it claims to be thegovernment in exileofManchukuo,a Japanesepuppet statewith limited recognitionwhich controlledManchuriafrom 1932 to 1945; it seeks to revive the state and toseparateit from thePeople's Republic of China,which controls its claimed territory.[12]Journalists and internet users have expressed doubts about its authenticity and aims.[11]On its website, it claims to have merged with other Manchu independence organizations as of 2019.
Structure and symbols
[edit]Media summaries of its website state that the Manchukuo Government includes an emperor, a royal family, a prime minister, and a cabinet. It continues to use the oldNational Anthem of ManchukuoandFlag of Manchukuo.[11]The website has accounts of the history of the region and its people.
The Manchukuo Government is a member of theInternational Monarchist Conference.[13]It also seeks to join theUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.[11]It claims to have overseas branches in Brazil, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States.[14]
The leadership of the Manchukuo Government is formed byelecting an emperorand a prime minister. In the 2008 elections, the emperorship was won by "Aisin Gioro Xiaojie" ( ái tân giác la ‧ hiếu kiệt ), stated to be a student in theUniversity of Hong Kong's history department; his actual relation to theAisin Gioroclan is suspect, as hisgeneration name"Xiao" ( hiếu ) does not fit with the actualclan genealogy.[11]However, that emperor dropped out of contact with the Manchukuo Government, so in April 2010, it held another election, won by "Aisin Gioro Chongji" ( ái tân giác la ‧ sùng cơ ).[15]Jason Adam-Tonis was elected as prime minister in May 2010. At the time, Adam-Tonis was aNew York Universitystudent and also a chairman of theSongunPolitics Study Group, aNorth Koreanfront group based in the United States.[16]In April 2011, The Manchukuo Government have merge with the Imperial Qing Restoration Organization, The Manchukuo Government and the entire cabinet resign and Adam-Tonis handed over power and the royal seals to His Imperial Majesty lý chí xuyên as the next emperor, Adam-Tonis was appointed Prime Minister of the combined Organization. In 2015, Fu Jun led a few supporters that is against the merger to form a separate Manchukuo Government and according to its website, Dokuritsu Aisingyoro has ascended to the throne in 2015, who appointed a president named Cheung Siu Bong, who was president until it merged with other Manchu organizations, at which time Fu Jun became president. Since 2019, the long dead emperorKangdeis recognized as the current emperor, with a regency council running on his behalf.[17]The organization alsoquestioned the legitimacyof the2020 United States presidential election.[18]
Financial activities
[edit]The Manchukuo Government's "central bank",which claims to succeed the oldCentral Bank of Manchou,declared the oldManchukuo yuanto have afixed exchange rateof 0.8 to theUnited States dollar,and offerscurrency exchangeservices by post.[19]As early as 2007, it was issuing identity cards for US$3 each, andfantasy passportsfor US$8 each, with payment to be made byPayPal.[19]Its website claimed to sellManchukuo postage stamps,but when aMing Paocolumnist enquired with them about the possibility of purchasing them, a spokesperson stated that the items were sold out.[15]It also issued what it referred to as "loyalty bonds". Its activities led the Hong KongSecurities and Futures Commission,Greece'sHellenic Capital Market Commission,and Spain'sComisión Nacional del Mercado de Valoresto issue public warnings about it in February 2008 to emphasise that it is not a body permitted to offer investment services.[20][21]
Reactions
[edit]The Manchukuo Government received occasional media attention in the context of thepolitics of Taiwanaround the time of the2009 elections,as its members may be distant relatives ofKuomintanggeneral-secretary andethnic ManchuKing Pu-tsung,and it was jokingly suggested that King himself might be one of its secret agents.[11][22]Some internet users suspected the entire website of being a scam set up for the purpose of raising money.[11]Hong Kong political scientistSimon Shen,an expert onChinese nationalismand the internet, also expressed suspicion of the website and its attempt to portray the revival of Manchukuo as a movement undertaken on behalf ofManchupeople; he pointed out that the people who ever felt genuine identification with the state of Manchukuo were mostly not Chinese or Manchu but rather Japanese.[15]Another news commentator similarly suggested thatJapanese nationalistswere behind the site.[12]On the other hand, Shen also suggested that the whole website might simply be a spoof designed byinternet trolls.[23]James Leipold of theChina Policy Institutedescribed it as "thick on anti-communist vitriol" while failing to address Japanese hegemony in Manchukuo.[24]
The Manchukuo Government also provoked angry reactions from some quarters. A NOWnews guest columnist in May 2011, in the midst of other arguments againstTaiwan independence,called the Manchukuo Government "the shame of the people ofNortheast China".[14]Its stated political positions, such as support for theDalai Lamaand theTibetan independence movement,as well as its calls todisruptthe2008 Summer OlympicsinBeijing,earned it the ire of internet users in mainland China.[11]At one point, rumours were spreading in mainland Chinese internet forums that one "Toshiaki Kawashima" ( xuyên đảo chí minh ), whom they alleged to be the nephew ofYoshiko Kawashimaand prime minister of the Manchukuo Government, was working as a secret agent forChen Shui-bianinPapua New Guineawith the aim of fomenting violence againstChinese people there.[25]
See also
[edit]- Concordia Association
- Local ethnic nationalism
- Northeast China
- Royalist Party
- Tartary
- Lytton Report
- Adverse possession
References
[edit]- ^Rhoads (2000),p. 278.
- ^Rhoads (2000),pp. 278–279.
- ^Rhoads (2000),pp. 279, 283.
- ^Rhoads (2000),p. 235.
- ^Rhoads (2000),pp. 235–236.
- ^Dickinson (1999),pp. 136, 301–302 (note 92).
- ^Rhoads (2000),pp. 271–272.
- ^Egler 1977,p. 107.
- ^Egler 1977,pp. 90–107.
- ^Egler 1977,pp. 96–97.
- ^abcdefgh"Mãn châu quốc phục tích? Kim phổ thông hữu cá tộc nhân tự phong thị hoàng đế [Manchukuo restored? King Pu-tsung has a clansman who proclaimed himself emperor]",NOWNews,2009-12-10, archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-25,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^abTôn hanh lợi [Henry Sun] (2009-09-16),"Mãn châu quốc yếu phục hoạt liễu! [Manchukuo revived!]",NOWNews,archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-25,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^"Ái tân giác la đích quốc cừu gia hận!"[Aisin Gioro's national enmity and personal hatred!],South News,2009-12-15,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^abA tu bá (2011-05-25),"Thanh thảo tiện tính đài độc, tiện tính mãn độc"[Denounce Taiwanese independence and Manchukuo independence],NOWNews,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^abcThẩm húc huy [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-09),"Tòng hỗ liên võng “Mãn châu quốc hoàng đế toàn dân trực tuyển” đàm khởi "[Regarding the internet "Manchukuo Emperor election" ],Ming Pao,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^"White Power and apocalyptic cults: Pro-DPRK Americans revealed; American homegrown terrorist groups are the chosen favorites of Pyongyang".NKNews.6 May 2013.Retrieved28 June2017.
- ^"Mãn châu đế quốc lưu vong chính phủ chi yếu nhân".manchuriagov.net.Retrieved2024-09-05.
- ^Mãn châu quốc chính phủ / mãn châu quốc chính phủ (2021-01-20),"Manchukuo Statement about Biden Regime",@Manchukuo_Gov,retrieved2021-11-30
- ^ab"Kỵ ni mãn châu quốc hộ chiếu 8 mỹ nguyên nhất bổn [Funny Manchukuo passports, US$8 each]",Apple Daily,2007-07-03,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^Εταιρειεσ μη εχουσεσ αδεια παροχησ επενδυτικων υπηρεσιων βασει σχετικων προειδοποιησεων (public warnings) ξενων εποπτικων αρχων(PDF),Hellenic Capital Market Commission, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2012-04-02,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^"CNMV advierte tres compañías Hong Kong podrían dar servicios sin autorización",Estrategias de Inversión,2008-03-06,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^"Kim phổ thông thị siêu cực chấn hám đạn [King Pu-tsung's a real shocker]",NOWNews,2009-12-17,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^Thẩm húc huy [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-16),"“Thái bình dương mãn châu độc lập cơ địa” —— võng lạc đạo thảo nhân đích cố sự ['Pacific Manchuria Independence Base' an internet scarecrow story] ",Ming Pao,retrieved2011-09-26
- ^Leipold, James (19 May 2016)."Ethnicity and the Chinese Internet: Escape from Reality?".China Policy Institute Analysis.Retrieved28 June2017.
- ^Thẩm húc huy [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-14),"“Mãn châu quốc” tham dữ ba bố á tân kỳ nội á bài hoa? [ "Manchukuo" joined anti-Chinese activities in Papua New Guinea?] ",Ming Pao,archived fromthe originalon 2012-04-04,retrieved2011-09-26
Bibliography
[edit]- Dickinson, Frederick R. (1999).War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914-1919.Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.ISBN9780674005075.
- Egler, David George (1977).Japanese mass organizations in Manchuria, 1928-1945: the ideology of racial harmony(PDF).Tucson, Arizona:University of Arizona.
- Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000).Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928.Seattle,London:University of Washington Press.ISBN9780295997483.