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This article is about the fruit. For other uses, seeMango (disambiguation).

Mango fruits – single and halved

Amangois an ediblestone fruitproduced by the tropical treeMangifera indica.It originated from the region between northwesternMyanmar,Bangladesh,and northeasternIndia.[1][2]M. indicahas been cultivated inSouthandSoutheast Asiasince ancient times resulting in two types of modern mango cultivars: the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type".[1][2]Other species in the genusMangiferaalso produce edible fruits that are also called "mangoes", the majority of which are found in theMalesianecoregion.[3]

Worldwide, there are several hundredcultivars of mango.Depending on the cultivar, mango fruit varies in size, shape, sweetness, skin color, and flesh color, which may be pale yellow, gold, green, or orange.[4]Mango is thenational fruitofIndia,Pakistanand thePhilippines,[5][6]while the mango tree is thenational treeof Bangladesh.[7]

Etymology

The English wordmango(plural "mangoes" or "mangos" ) originated in the16th centuryfrom thePortuguesewordmanga,from theMalaymangga,and ultimately from theTamilman( "mango tree" ) +kay( "unripe fruit/vegetable" ).[8][9][10]The scientific name,Mangifera indica,refers to a plant bearing mangoes in India.[10]

Description

Mango trees grow to 30–40 metres (98–131 feet) tall, with a crown radius of 10–15 m (33–49 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.[11]

In deep soil, thetaprootdescends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft), with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots and anchor roots penetrating deeply into the soil.[4]Theleavesareevergreen,alternate, simple, 15–35 centimetres (6–14 inches) long, and6–16 cm (2+1⁄2–6+1⁄2in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature.[4]Theflowersare produced in terminalpanicles10–40 cm (4–15+1⁄2in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals5–10 millimetres (3⁄16–3⁄8in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance.[4]Over 500varietiesof mangoes are known,[4]many of which ripen in summer, while some give a double crop.[12]The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripening.[4]

The ripe fruit varies according to cultivar in size, shape, color, sweetness, and eating quality.[4]Depending on the cultivar, fruits are variously yellow, orange, red, or green.[4]The fruit has a single flat, oblongpitthat can befibrousor hairy on the surface and does not separate easily from the pulp.[4]The fruits may be somewhat round, oval, orkidney-shaped, ranging from 5–25 centimetres (2–10 in) in length and from 140 grams (5 oz) to 2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight per individual fruit.[4]The skin is leather-like, waxy, smooth, and fragrant, with colors ranging from green to yellow, yellow-orange, yellow-red, or blushed with various shades of red, purple, pink, or yellow when fully ripe.[4]

Ripe intact mangoes give off a distinctiveresinous,sweet smell.[4]Inside the pit 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick is a thin lining covering a singleseed,4–7 cm (1.6–2.8 in) long. Mangoes haverecalcitrant seedswhich do not survive freezing and drying.[13]Mango trees grow readily from seeds, withgerminationsuccess highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.[4]

Taxonomy

'Carabao',a typical "Southeast Asian type"polyembryonicmango cultivar
'Langra',a typical "Indian type"monoembryonicmango cultivar

Mangoes originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.[1][2]The mango is considered anevolutionary anachronism,wherebyseed dispersalwas once accomplished by a now-extinctevolutionaryforager,such as amegafaunamammal.[14]

From their center of origin, mangoes diverged into two genetically distinct populations: the subtropical Indian group and the tropical Southeast Asian group. The Indian group is characterized by havingmonoembryonicfruits, whilepolyembryonicfruits characterize the Southeast Asian group.[1][2]

It was previously believed that mangoes originated from a singledomesticationevent in South Asia before being spread to Southeast Asia, but a 2019 study found no evidence of a center of diversity in India. Instead, it identified a higher unique genetic diversity in Southeast Asian cultivars than in Indian cultivars, indicating that mangoes may have originally been domesticated first in Southeast Asia before being introduced to South Asia. However, the authors also cautioned that the diversity in Southeast Asian mangoes might be the result of other reasons (likeinterspecific hybridizationwith otherMangiferaspecies native to theMalesianecoregion). Nevertheless, the existence of two distinct genetic populations also identified by the study indicates that the domestication of the mango is more complex than previously assumed and would at least indicate multiple domestication events in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[1][2]

Cultivars

Main article:List of mango cultivars

There are hundreds of named mango cultivars. In mangoorchards,several cultivars are often grown to improve pollination. Many desired cultivars aremonoembryonicand must be propagated bygrafting,or they do not breed true. A common monoembryonic cultivar is'Alphonso',an important export product, considered "the king of mangoes."[15]

Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie,' a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require annualfungicidetreatments to escape the lethalfungal diseaseanthracnosein Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to anthracnose.[16]

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar'Tommy Atkins',a seedling of'Haden'that first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida and was initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers.[17]Growers and importers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its excellent productivity and disease resistance,shelf life,transportability, size, and appealing color.[18]Although the Tommy Atkins cultivar is commercially successful, other cultivars may be preferred by consumers for eating pleasure, such as Alphonso.[15][18]

Generally, ripe mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating, while exported fruit are often picked while underripe with green peels. Although producingethylenewhile ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.

Distribution and habitat

Mango tree in Palestine

From tropical Asia, mangoes were introduced to East Africa byArabandPersiantraders in the ninth to tenth centuries.[19]The 14th-century Moroccan travelerIbn Battutareported it atMogadishu.[20]It was spread further into other areas around the world during theColonial Era.ThePortuguese Empirespread the mango from their colony inGoato East and West Africa. From West Africa, they introduced it to Brazil from the 16th to the 17th centuries. From Brazil, it spread northwards to theCaribbeanand eastern Mexico by the mid to late 18th century. TheSpanish Empirealso introduced mangoes directly from the Philippines to western Mexico via theManila galleonsfrom at least the 16th century. Mangoes were only introduced to Florida by 1833.[2][21]

Cultivation

The mango is now cultivated in mostfrost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates. It is cultivated extensively inSouth Asia,Southeast Asia,EastandWest Africa,the tropical and subtropical Americas, and theCaribbean.[22]Mangoes are also grown inAndalusia,Spain (mainly inMálaga province), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of the few places in mainland Europe that permits the growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. TheCanary Islandsare another notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other minor cultivators include North America (in South Florida and the CaliforniaCoachella Valley), Hawai'i, and Australia.[23]

Many commercialcultivarsare grafted onto the cold-hardy rootstock of theGomera-1mango cultivar, originally from Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastal Mediterranean climate.[24]Many of the 1,000+ mango cultivars are easilycultivatedusing grafted saplings, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste ofturpentine[25]) to the Bullock's Heart. Dwarf or semidwarf varieties serve asornamental plantsand can be grown in containers. Awide variety of diseasescan afflict mangoes.[citation needed]

Mango* production – 2022
Country millions oftonnes
India
26.3
Indonesia
4.1
China
3.8
Pakistan
2.8
Mexico
2.5
Brazil
2.1
World
59.2
* includes mangosteens and guavas reported to FAOSTAT
Source:FAOSTATof the United Nations[26]

A breakthrough in mango cultivation was the use ofpotassium nitrateandethrelto induce flowering in mangoes. The discovery was made byFilipinohorticulturistRamon Barbain 1974 and was developed from the unique traditional method of inducing mango flowering using smoke in the Philippines. It allowed mango plantations to induce regular flowering and fruiting year-round. Previously, mangoes were seasonal because they only flowered every 16 to 18 months. The method is now used in most mango-producing countries.[27][28]

Production

In 2022, world production of mangoes (report includesmangosteensandguavas) was 59 milliontonnes,led by India with 44% of the total (table).

Uses

Culinary

Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh vary across cultivars; some, such asAlphonso,have a soft, pulpy, juicy texture similar to an overripeplum,while others, such asTommy Atkins,are firmer with a fibrous texture.[29]

The skin of unripe,pickled,or cooked mango can be eaten, but it has the potential to causecontact dermatitisof the lips,gingiva,or tongue in susceptible people.[30]

Mangoes are used in many cuisines. Sour, unripe mangoes are used inchutneys(i.e.,mango chutney),pickles,daalsand other side dishes inIndian cuisine.A summer drink calledaam pannais made with mangoes. Mango pulp made into jelly or cooked with red gramdhaland green chilies may be served with cooked rice.Mango lassiis consumed throughout South Asia, prepared by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp withbuttermilkand sugar. Ripe mangoes are also used to make curries.Aamrasis a thick juice made of mangoes with sugar or milk and is consumed withchapatisorpooris.The pulp from ripe mangoes is also used to make jam calledmangada.Andhraaavakaayais a pickle made from raw, unripe, pulpy, and sour mango mixed with chili powder,fenugreekseeds,mustard powder,salt, andgroundnut oil.Mango is also used to makedahlandchunda(a sweet and spicy, grated mango delicacy).

Mangoes are used to makemurabba(fruit preserves),muramba(a sweet, grated mango delicacy),amchur(dried and powdered unripe mango), and pickles, including a spicy mustard-oil pickle and alcohol. Ripe mangoes are cut into thin layers,desiccated,folded and then cut. The fruit is also added to cereal products such asmuesliand oatgranola.

Mango is used to makejuices,smoothies,ice cream,fruit bars,raspados,aguas frescas,pies,and sweetchili sauce,or mixed withchamoy,a sweet and spicy chili paste. In Central America, mango is either eaten green, mixed with salt, vinegar,black pepper,and hot sauce, or ripe in various forms.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice asmilkshakes.Sweet glutinous rice is flavored withcoconut,then served with sliced mango asmango sticky rice.In other parts of Southeast Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce andrice vinegar.Green mangoes can be used in mango salad with fish sauce anddried shrimp.Mango withcondensed milkmay be used as a topping forshaved ice.

Raw green mangoes can be sliced and eaten like a salad.[31]In most parts of Southeast Asia, they are commonly eaten withfish sauce,vinegar, soy sauce, or with a dash of salt (plain or spicy) – a combination usually known as "mango salad" in English.[32]

Major flavor chemicals of 'Alphonso' mango from India

In the Philippines, green mangoes are also commonly eaten withbagoong(saltyfishorshrimp paste), salt,soy sauce,vinegaror chilis.[33][34]Mango floatandmango cake,which use slices of ripe mangoes, are eaten in the Philippines.[35][36]Dried stripsof sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined with seedlesstamarindto formmangorind) are also consumed. Mangoes may be used to make juices, mangonectar,and as a flavoring and major ingredient in mangoice creamandsorbetes.

Phytochemistry

Mango
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy250 kJ (60 kcal)
15 g
Sugars13.7
Dietary fiber1.6 g
0.38 g
Saturated0.092 g
Monounsaturated0.14 g
Polyunsaturated0.071 g
0.051 g
0.019 g
0.82 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
6%
54 μg
6%
640 μg
23 μg
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.028 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
3%
0.038 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.669 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.197 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.119 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
43 μg
Choline
1%
7.6 mg
Vitamin C
40%
36.4 mg
Vitamin E
6%
0.9 mg
Vitamin K
4%
4.2 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
11 mg
Copper
12%
0.111 mg
Iron
1%
0.16 mg
Magnesium
2%
10 mg
Manganese
3%
0.063 mg
Phosphorus
1%
14 mg
Potassium
6%
168 mg
Selenium
1%
0.6 μg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.09 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water83.5 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[37]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[38]

Numerousphytochemicalsare present in mangopeeland pulp, such as thetriterpenelupeol.[39]Mango peel pigments under study includecarotenoids,such as theprovitamin Acompound,beta-carotene,luteinandalpha-carotene,[40][41]andpolyphenols,such asquercetin,kaempferol,gallic acid,caffeic acid,catechinsandtannins.[42][43]Mango contains a uniquexanthonoidcalledmangiferin.[44]

Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mangocultivars.[45]Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest of which was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orangepigmentationof most mango cultivars.[46]Mango leaves also have significant polyphenol content, includingxanthonoids,mangiferin and gallic acid.[47]

Flavor

Theflavorof mango fruits is conferred by several volatile organic chemicals mainly belonging toterpene,furanone,lactone,andesterclasses. Different varieties orcultivars of mangoescan have flavors made up of different volatile chemicals or the same volatile chemicals in different quantities.[48]In general,New Worldmango cultivars are characterized by the dominance of δ-3-carene, a monoterpene flavorant; whereas, high concentration of other monoterpenes such as (Z)-ocimene and myrcene, as well as the presence of lactones and furanones, is the unique feature ofOld Worldcultivars.[49][50][51]In India,'Alphonso'is one of the most popular cultivars. In 'Alphonso' mango, the lactones and furanones are synthesized during ripening, whereas terpenes and the other flavorants are present in both the developing (immature) and ripening fruits.[52][53][54]Ethylene,a ripening-related hormone well known to be involved in ripening of mango fruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mango fruits upon exogenous application, as well.[55][56]In contrast to the huge amount of information available on the chemical composition of mango flavor, the biosynthesis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth; only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of flavor biosynthetic pathways have been characterized to date.[57][58][59][60]

Toxicity

Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can causedermatitisandanaphylaxisin susceptible individuals.[4][30][61]Those with a history of contact dermatitis induced byurushiol(an allergen found inpoison ivy,poison oak,orpoison sumac) may be most at risk for mango contact dermatitis.[62]Other mango compounds potentially responsible for dermatitis or allergic reactions includemangiferin.[4]Cross-reactions may occur between mango allergens and urushiol.[63]Sensitized individuals may not be able to eat peeled mangos or drink mango juice safely.[4]

When mango trees are flowering in spring, local people with allergies may experience breathing difficulty, itching of the eyes, or facial swelling, even before flowerpollenbecomes airborne.[4]In this case, the irritant is likely to be thevaporizedessential oilfrom flowers.[4]During the primary ripening season of mangoes, contact with mango plant parts – primarilysap,leaves, and fruit skin[4]– is the most common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[64]

Nutrition

A raw mango is 84% water, 15%carbohydrates,1%protein,and has negligible fat (table). The energy value per 100g (3.5oz) serving of raw mango is 250 kJ (60calories). Fresh mango contains onlyvitamin Candfolatein significant amounts of theDaily Valueas 44% and 11%, respectively (table).

Culture

An image ofAmbikaunder a mango tree in Cave 34 of theEllora Caves

The mango is thenational fruitof India.[65][66]It is also thenational treeof Bangladesh.[67][68]In India, harvest and sale of mangoes is during March–May and this is annually covered by news agencies.[15]

The mango has a traditional context in the culture of South Asia. In hisedicts,the Mauryan emperorAshokareferences the planting of fruit- and shade-bearing trees along imperial roads:

"On the roadsbanyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted. "

In medieval India, the Indo-Persian poetAmir Khusrowtermed the mango "Naghza Tarin Mewa Hindustan"–" the fairest fruit of Hindustan. "Mangoes were enjoyed at the court of the Delhi SultanAlauddin Khijli.The Mughal Empire was especially fond of the fruits:Baburpraises the mango in hisBabarnameh.At the same time,Sher Shah Suriinaugurated the creation of theChaunsavariety after his victory over the Mughal emperorHumayun.Mughal patronage of horticulture led to the grafting of thousands of mangoes varieties, including the famousTotapuri,which was the first variety to be exported to Iran and Central Asia.[citation needed]Akbar(1556–1605) is said to have planted a mango orchard of 100,000 trees nearDarbhanga,Bihar,[69]whileJahangirandShah Jahanordered the planting of mango orchards in Lahore and Delhi and the creation of mango-based desserts.[70]

TheJaingoddessAmbikais traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree.[71]Mango blossoms are also used in the worship of the goddessSaraswati.Mango leaves decorate archways and doors in Indian houses during weddings and celebrations such asGanesh Chaturthi.Mangomotifsandpaisleysare widely used in different Indianembroiderystyles, and are found inKashmirishawls,Kanchipuramand silksarees.InTamil Nadu,the mango is referred to as one of the three royal fruits, along with banana andjackfruit,for their sweetness and flavor.[72]This triad of fruits is referred to asma-pala-vazhai.The classical Sanskrit poetKālidāsasang the praises of mangoes.[73]

Mangoes were the subject of themango cultin China during theCultural Revolutionas symbols of chairmanMao Zedong's love for the people.[74]

See also

References

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