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Maronite Church

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Not to be confused withMarcionite Church.


Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church
Seat of thepatriarchateinBkerké,Lebanon
ClassificationEastern Catholic
OrientationSyriac
ScripturePeshitta[1][2]
TheologyCatholic theology
PolityEpiscopal
GovernanceHoly Synod of the Maronite Church[ar][3]
PopeFrancis
Patriarch[4][5]Bechara Boutros al-Rahi
RegionLebanon(approximately one third),Syria,Israel,Cyprus,Jordan,Palestineanddiaspora
LanguageArabic,[6][7]Aramaic(Classical Syriac)
LiturgyWest Syriac Rite
HeadquartersBkerké,Lebanon
FounderMaron;John Maron
Origin410 AD
Monastery of Saint Maron,Phoenicia,Roman Empire
Members3,498,707[8]
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TheMaronite Church(Arabic:لكنيسة المارونية‎;Syriac:ܥܕܬܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܬܐ ܡܪܘܢܝܬܐ) is anEastern Catholicsui iurisparticular churchinfull communionwith thepopeand the worldwideCatholic Church,with self-governance under theCode of Canons of the Eastern Churches.[9]The head of the Maronite Church isPatriarchBechara Boutros al-Rahi,who was elected in March 2011 following the resignation of PatriarchNasrallah Boutros Sfeir.The seat of the Maronite Patriarchate is inBkerke,northeast ofBeirut,Lebanon.Officially known as theAntiochene Syriac Maronite Church(Arabic:الكنيسة الأنطاكية السريانية المارونية;Syriac:ܥܹܕܬܵܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܡܪܘܝܝܐ ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ), it is part ofSyriac Christianitybyliturgyand heritage.[10]

The early development of the Maronite Church can be divided into three periods, from the 4th to the 7th centuries. Acongregationmovement, withSaint Maronfrom theTaurus Mountainsas an inspirational leader andpatron saint,marked the first period. The second began with the establishment of theMonastery of Saint Maroun on the Orontes,built after theCouncil of Chalcedonto defend the doctrines of the council.[11]This monastery was described as the "greatest monastery" in the region ofSyria Secunda,with more than 300hermitagesaround it, according to ancient records.[12]After 518, the monasteryde factoadministered many parishes inSyria Prima,Cole SyriaandPhoenicia.The third period was whenSede Vacantefollowed theIslamic conquest of the regionand bishops of the Saint Maron Monastery electedJohn Maronas Patriarch circa 685 AD, according to Maronite tradition. TheGreek Orthodox Church of Antiochreestablishedtheir patriarchatein 751 AD.[13]Other centers of historical importance includeKfarhay,Yanouh,Mayfouq,and theQadisha Valley.

Although reduced in numbers today, the distinct but relatedMaroniteethno-religious groupremains a principal grouping in Lebanon,[14]with smaller minorities of Maronites inSyria,Cyprus,Israel,andJordan.Emigrationsince the 19th century means that about two-thirds of the Maronite Church's roughly 3.5 million members in 2017[15]were located outside "The Antiochian's Range", where they are part of the worldwideLebanese diaspora.

Overview

[edit]

The six major traditions of the Catholic Church areAlexandrian,Antiochene,Armenian,Chaldean,Constantinopolitan(Byzantine), andLatin(Roman). The Maronite Church follows the Antiochene Tradition.[16]Any Catholic may attend anyEastern Catholic liturgyand fulfill his or her canonical obligations at an Eastern Catholic parish. Any Catholic may attend any Eastern Catholic parish or service and receive any sacrament from an Eastern Catholic priest since all belong to the Catholic Church.[17]Maronites who do not reside within a convenient distance to a local Maronite Church are permitted to attend other Catholic churches while retaining their Maronite membership.[18]

The Maronite Patriarchal Assembly (2003–2004) identified five distinguishing marks of the Maronite Church:

  • It is Antiochene.
  • It is Chalcedonian, in that the Maronites were strong supporters of theCouncil of Chalcedonof 451.
  • It is Patriarchal and Monastic.
  • It is faithful to the See of Peter in Rome.
  • It has strong ties to Lebanon.[16]

History

[edit]
Main article:Maron
St. Maron: Russian orthodox icon
Remains of the arch of Brad Cathedral north of Aleppo, where Saint Maron's tomb was attached

Maron,a fourth-centurymonkand a contemporary and friend ofJohn Chrysostom,left Antioch for theOrontes Riverin modern-day Syria to lead anasceticlife, following the traditions ofAnthony the Greatof the Desert and ofPachomius.Many of his followers also lived a monastic lifestyle. Maron is considered the founder of the spiritual and monastic movement that evolved into what is now the Maronite Church. Maronite Christianity has had a profound influence on what is nowLebanon,and to a lesser degreeSyria,JordanandPalestine.Saint Maron spent his life on a mountain in Syria, generally believed to be"Kefar-Nabo"on the mountain ofOl-Yambosin theTaurus Mountains,contemporaryTurkey,becoming the cradle of the Maronite movement established in theMonastery of Saint Maron.

Following Maron's death in 410 AD, his disciples built Beth-Maron monastery atApamea(present dayQalaat al-Madiq). This formed the nucleus of the Maronite Church. In 452, after theCouncil of Chalcedon,the monastery was expanded by theByzantine emperorMarcian.[19]

The Maronite movement reached Lebanon when St. Maron's first disciple,Abraham of Cyrrhus,who was called the "Apostle of Lebanon", set out to convert the non-Christians by introducing them to St. Maron.[20]

TheMaronitessubscribed to the beliefs of the Council of Chalcedon in 451.Monophysitesof Antioch slew 350 monks and burned the monastery in an act ofsectarian violence among Christians.Later,Justinian Irestored the community. Correspondence concerning the event brought the Maronites papal and orthodox recognition, indicated by a letter fromPope Hormisdas(514–523) dated 10 February 518.[21]Representatives from Beth-Maron participated in the Constantinople synods of536and553.

An outbreak of civil war during the reign of EmperorPhocasbrought forth riots in the cities of Syria and Palestine and incursions by Persian KingKhosrow II.In 609, the Patriarch of Antioch,Anastasius II,was killed either at the hands of some soldiers or locals.[22]This left the Maronites without a leader, which continued because of the finalByzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628.

In the aftermath of the war, the EmperorHeracliuspropagated a new Christological doctrine in an attempt to unify the various Christian churches of the East, who were divided over accepting theCouncil of Chalcedon.This doctrine, calledMonothelitism,held that Christ had two natures (one divine and one human) but only one will (not a divine will and also a human will), based on a phrasing ofPope Honorius I(seeControversy over Honorius I), and was meant as a compromise between supporters of Chalcedon, such as the Maronites, and opponents, such as theJacobites.Monothelitismfailed to settle the schism, however, and was declared a heresy at theSixth Ecumenical Councilin 680–681. The Council condemned both Honorius and PatriarchSergius I of Constantinoplebut did not explicitly mention the Maronites.[19]

Contemporary Greek and Arab sources suggest the Maronites rejected theThird Council of Constantinopleand accepted monothelitism,[23]only moving away from it in the time of theCrusadesin order to avoid being branded heretics by the crusaders. The Maronite Church, however, rejects the assertions that the Maronites were ever monothelites and broke communion with Rome;[24]and the question remains a matter of controversy.[23]Elias El-Hāyek attributes much of the confusion to Eutyches of Alexandria, whoseAnnalsEl-Hāyek claimed contain erroneous material regarding the early Maronite Church, which was then picked up byWilliam of Tyreand others.[19]Robert W. Crawford concluded the same, pointing out that the heretic "Maro" mentioned in theAnnals,which William of Tyre considers as the namesake of the Maronites, was aNestorianfrom Edessa and could not have beenMaronorJohn Maron.[25]However,Donald Attwater,20th Century historian of Eastern Christianity, affirmed the view that Maronites broke communion with Rome over monothelitism, however briefly.[26]

First Maronite Patriarch

[edit]
Main article:John Maron
Maronite monk andpilgrims,Mount Lebanon

The Patriarch of AntiochAnastasius IIdied in 609, and Constantinople began to appoint a series of titular patriarchs, who resided in Constantinople. In 685, the Maronites elected Bishop John Maron ofBatrounas Patriarch of Antioch and all the East.[19]

The Eastern Mediterranean under Umayyad rule, with the Mardaites zones showed in Mount Lebanon and the Amanus

In 687, as part of an agreements withAbd al-Malik ibn Marwan,Byzantine emperorJustinian IIsent 12,000 Christian Maronites from Lebanon to Armenia,[27]in exchange for a substantial payment and half the revenues of Cyprus.[19]There they were conscripted as rowers andmarinesin theByzantine navy.[28]Additional resettlement efforts allowed Justinian to reinforce naval forces depleted by earlier conflicts.[29]

John Maron established himself in the remoteQadisha Valleyin Lebanon. In 694, Justinian sent troops against the Maronites in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Patriarch.[30]John Maron died in 707 at the Monastery of St. Maron in Lebanon. Around 749 the Maronite community, in the Lebanon mountains, built the Mar-Mama church atEhden.Meanwhile, caught between the Byzantines and the Arabs, the monastery at Beth-Maron struggled to survive.[31]

Islamic rule

[edit]
1779 painting of a Maronite nun from Mount Lebanon, with brownjilbab,blue headscarf and blackhijab

After they came under Arab rule following theMuslim conquest of Syria(634–638), Maronite immigration to Lebanon, which had begun some time before, increased, intensifying under the Abbasid caliphal-Ma'mun(813–33).[30]

To eliminate internal dissent, from 1289 to 1291 Egyptian Mamluk troops descended on Mount Lebanon, destroying forts and monasteries.[32]

Crusades

[edit]

Following the Muslim conquest of Eastern Christendom outsideAnatoliaand Europe in the 7th century and after the establishment of secured lines of demarcation between IslamicCaliphsand Byzantine Emperors, little was heard from the Maronites for 400 years. Secure in their mountain strongholds, the Maronites were re-discovered in the mountains nearTripoli, Lebanon,byRaymond of Toulouseon his way to conquer Jerusalem in theGreat Crusadeof 1096–1099. Raymond later returned tobesiege Tripoli(1102–1109) after the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, and relations between the Maronites and European Christianity were subsequently reestablished.[33]

The Maronites assisted the crusaders and affirmed their affiliation with theHoly Seeof Rome in 1182.[34]To commemorate their communion, Maronite Patriarch Youseff Al Jirjisi received the crown and staff, marking his patriarchal authority, fromPope Paschal IIin 1100 AD. In 1131, Maronite Patriarch Gregorios Al-Halati received letters from PopeInnocent IIin which the Papacy recognized the authority of thePatriarchate of Antioch.PatriarchJeremias II Al-Amshitti(1199–1230) became the first Maronite Patriarch to visit Rome when he attended theFourth Council of the Lateranin 1215.[34]The Patriarchate of Antioch was also represented at theCouncil of Ferrara-Florencein 1438.[35]

Peter Hans Kolvenbachnotes, "This contact with the Latin Church enriched the intellectual world of Europe in the Middle Ages. Maronites taught Oriental languages and literature at the universities of Italy and France."[31]

Ottoman rule

[edit]

In theOttoman Empire,indigenous concentrated religious communities dealt mainly with the provincial administration. Officially, Maronites had to pay thejizyatax as non-Muslims, but sometimes the monks and clergy were exempt because they were considered to be "poor".[36]

Fakhr-al-Din II(1572–1635) was aDruzeprince and a leader of the Emirate ofChouf Districtin the governorate of Mount Lebanon. Maronite Abū Nādir al-Khāzin was one of his foremost supporters and served as Fakhr-al-Din's adjutant. Phares notes that "The emirs prospered from the intellectual skills and trading talents of the Maronites, while the Christians gained political protection, autonomy and a local ally against the ever-present threat of direct Ottoman rule."[37]In 1649, Patriarch Yuhanna al-Sufrari placed the Maronites under French protection, and the French opened a consulate in Beirut.[38]

The Khāzin sheikhs subsequently increased in power and influence. In 1662, with the mediation ofJesuitmissionaries, Abū Nawfal al-Khāzin was named French consul, despite complaints by Marseille merchants that he was not from Marseille.[36]The Church prospered from the protection and influence of the Khāzins, but at the expense of interference in church affairs, particularly ecclesiastical appointments, which the Khāzins saw as an extension of their political influence.[37]

Bachir Chehab IIwas the first and last Maronite ruler of the Emirate of Mount Lebanon.[39]

Archbishop of BeirutTobia Aoun(1803–1871)

The relationship between the Druze andChristianshas been characterized byharmonyand peacefulcoexistence,[40]with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.[41][42]

The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism"in theMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[43]

French rule

[edit]
Main article:Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon

Independent Lebanon

[edit]
Main article:Christianity in Lebanon

Synod of Mount Lebanon (1736)

[edit]

Maronite orientalistJoseph Simon Assemanipresided as papal legate forPope Clement XII.The synod drafted a Code of Canons for the Maronite Church and created the first regular diocesan structure.[34]The Council of Luwayza led to a more effective church structure and to gradual emancipation from the influence of Maronite families.[44]

Latinization

[edit]
Saint Charbel

Due to closer ties with the Latin Church, the Maronite Church is among the mostLatinizedof theEastern Catholic Churches.

Contacts between the Maronite monks and Rome were revived during the Crusades. The Maronites introduced to Eastern Churches Western devotional practices such as therosaryand theStations of the Cross.[31]Late in the 16th century,Pope Gregory XIIIsent Jesuits to the Lebanese monasteries to ensure that their practice conformed to decisions made at theCouncil of Trent.[32]TheMaronite Collegein Rome was established by Gregory XIII in 1584.[37]The Maronite missal (Qurbono) was first printed between 1592 and 1594 in Rome, although with fewer anaphoras.

PatriarchStephan al-Duwayhî(1670–1704), (later declared a "Servant of God"), was able to find a middle ground between reformers and conservatives, and re-vitalized Maronite liturgical tradition.[35]

The Synod of Mount Lebanon sought to incorporate both traditions. It formalized many of the Latin practices that had developed, but also attempted to preserve ancient Maronite liturgical tradition. The Synod did not sanction the exclusive use of the Roman ritual in the administration of Baptism. However, in the Eastern tradition, theoil of catechumensis blessed by the priest during thebaptismalrite. This blessing was now reserved to theChrism Massof Holy Thursday. A practice common among all the Eastern Churches is to administer Baptism andFirst Communiontogether. Unlike in other Eastern Catholic churches and similar to the Latin Church, Holy Communion is to be given only to those who have attained the age of reason; priests were forbidden to give Communion to infants.[45]

InOrientale lumen,the Apostolic Letter to the Churches of the East, issued 2 May 1995,Pope John Paul IIquotesOrientalium Ecclesiarum,the Second Vatican Council's Decree on the Eastern Catholic Churches:

It has been stressed several times that the full union of the Catholic Eastern Churches with the Church of Rome which has already been achieved must not imply a diminished awareness of their own authenticity and originality. Wherever this occurred, the Second Vatican Council has urged them to rediscover their full identity, because they have "the right and the duty to govern themselves according to their own unique disciplines. For these are guaranteed by ancient tradition and seem to be better suited to the customs of their faithful and to the good of their souls."[46]

Cardinal Sfeir's personal commitment accelerated liturgical reforms in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992 he published a new MaroniteMissal.[35]This represents an attempt to return to the original form of the Antiochene Liturgy, removing the liturgical Latinization of past centuries. There are six Anaphoras.

Patriarch Sfeir stated thatSacrosanctum conciliumand the Roman liturgical changes following Vatican II apply to the Maronite Church.Sancrosanctum Conciliumsays, "Among these principles and norms there are some which can and should be applied both to the Roman rite and also to all the other rites. The practical norms which follow, however, should be taken as applying only to the Roman rite, except for those which, in the very nature of things, affect other rites as well."[47]

Organization

[edit]
ThePeshittais the standard Syriac Bible, used by the Maronite Church, amongst others. The illustration is of the Peshitta text ofExodus13:14–16 produced inAmidain the year 464.
The Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya, in the Zgharta district, North Lebanon

Patriarchate of Antioch

[edit]

The head of the Maronite Church is thePatriarch of Antioch and the Whole Levant,who is elected by the Maronite bishops and resides inBkerké,close toJounieh,north ofBeirut.He resides in the northern town ofDimaneduring the summer.[16]

There are four other claimants to the Patriarchal succession of Antioch:

Clerical celibacyis not strictly required for Maronite deacons and priests of parishes outside of North America; monks, however, must remain celibate, as well as bishops who are normally selected from the monasteries. Around 50% of the Maronitediocesan priestsin the Middle East aremarried.[48]Due to a long-term understanding with their Latin counterparts in North America, Maronite priests in that area have traditionally remained celibate. However, in February 2014, Wissam Akiki was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop A. Elias Zaidan of the U.S. Maronite Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon at St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral in St. Louis. Deacon Akiki is the first married man to be ordained to the Maronite priesthood in North America and will not be expected to remain continent.[49]

Episcopates

[edit]

The Maronite church has twenty-six eparchies and patriarchalvicariatesas follows:[50]

A map depicting the dioceses of the Maronite Church by number of faithful

Middle East

[edit]
Worldwide Immediately subject to the Patriarch

Elsewhere

[edit]
Exempt, i.e. immediately subject to theHoly See:
Subject to the Synod in matters of liturgical and particular law, otherwise exempt, i.e. immediately subject to theHoly Seeand itsDicastery for the Eastern Churches:
Suffragan Eparchies in theecclesiastical provincesof Latin Metropolitan Archbishops; both inSouth America:

Titular sees

[edit]

Religious institutes (orders)

[edit]

Population

[edit]
Main articles:MaronitesandMaronite Christianity in Lebanon

In the 12th century, about 40,000 Maronites resided in the area around Antioch and modern-day Lebanon.[34]By the 21st century, estimates suggest that the Maronite diaspora population may have grown to more than twice the estimated 2 million Maronites living in their historic homelands in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel.[57]

According to the official site of the Maronite church, approximately 1,062,000Maroniteslive inLebanon,where they constitute up to 22 -23 percent of the population. Syrian Maronites total 51,000, following the archdioceses ofAleppoandDamascusand theDioceseofLatakia.[58]AMaronite communityof about 10,000 livesin Cyprus[58]with approximately 1,000 speakers ofCypriot Maronite Arabicfrom Kormakitis.[59][60]A noticeableMaronite communityexists in northern Israel (Galilee), numbering 7,504.[58]

Diaspora

[edit]
Maronite Pastoral Center in St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.

Immigration of Maronite faithful from the Middle East to the United States began during the latter part of the nineteenth century. When the faithful were able to obtain a priest, communities were established as parishes under the jurisdiction of the local Latin bishops. In January 1966, Pope Paul VI established the Maronite Apostolic Exarchate for the Maronite faithful of the United States. In a decree of the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Churches, Bishop Francis Mansour Zayek was appointed the first exarch. The see, in Detroit, Michigan, with a cathedral under the patronage of Saint Maron, was suffragan to the Archdiocese of Detroit. In 1971,Pope Paul VIelevated the Exarchate to the status of an Eparchy, with the name of Eparchy of Saint Maron of Detroit. In 1977, the see of the Eparchy of Saint Maron was transferred to Brooklyn, New York, with the cathedral under the patronage of Our Lady of Lebanon. The name of the Eparchy was modified to Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn.[18]

In 1994, the Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon was established with the cathedral at Los Angeles, California, under the patronage of Our Lady of Lebanon.[18]John George Chedid,auxiliary bishop of the Diocese of Saint Maron of Brooklyn, was ordained as the first Bishop of the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles at the Our Lady of Lebanon Cathedral in Los Angeles, California, where he served until he reached the mandatory retirement age of 80. In December 2000,Robert Joseph Shaheensucceeded Chedid as eparch.

Eparchies operate inSão Pauloin Brazil, as well as in Colombia, Mexico, France, Australia,[61]South Africa, Canada and Argentina.[58]

Former Brazilian presidentMichel Temer,the firstLebanese Brazilianto have led the nation, was the son of two Maronite Catholic Lebanese immigrants.[62][63]

Other

[edit]
  • The Maronite Church awards medals,[64]Great Crosses,[65]and the Golden Order of the Maronite General Council of the Maronite Church.[66]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Assemani, Maronite Light from the East for the Church and the World
  2. ^Studia Humana Volume 2:3 (2013), pp. 53—55
  3. ^Synod of the Maronite Church Patriarchal Synod
  4. ^Cardinal Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir, head of the Maronite Church who steered a difficult course between factions in the Middle East – obituary
  5. ^Maronite patriarch elevates St. Maron pastor to chorbishop during Detroit visit
  6. ^Maronite liturgy draws from Eastern and Western traditions, Catholics and cultures
  7. ^The Maronite Divine Liturgy, By Dr Margaret Ghosn, Our Lady of Lebanon parish Australia
  8. ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 October 2018.Retrieved15 October2019.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  9. ^Richard P. Mc Brien,The Church: The Evolution of Catholicism(New York: Harper One, 2008), 450. O'Brien notes: The Vatican II document,Orientalium Ecclesiarum,"acknowledged that the Eastern Catholic communities are true Churches and not just rites within the Catholic Church."
  10. ^Book of Offering: According to the Rite of the Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church.Bkerke, Lebanon: Maronite Patriarchate of Antioch and all the East. 2012.
  11. ^History of the Maronites,Maronite Heritage.com, 13 April 2016.
  12. ^Beggiani, Seely."Aspects of Maronite History—Monastery of St. Maron".Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn. Archived fromthe originalon 2 March 2001.Retrieved4 July2017.
  13. ^No'man 1996,p. 22.
  14. ^Reyes, Adelaida (2014).Music and Minorities from Around the World: Research, Documentation and Interdisciplinary Study.Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 45.ISBN9781443870948.The Maronites are an ethnoreligious group in the Levant.
  15. ^"Eastern Catholic Churches Worldwide 2017"(PDF).Catholic Near East Welfare Association.2017.Retrieved25 October2021.
  16. ^abc"Maronite Church".Retrieved16 June2016.
  17. ^"About the Maronite Rite - Our Lady's Maronite Catholic Church".Archived fromthe originalon 25 May 2016.Retrieved16 June2016.
  18. ^abc"MARONITE HISTORY & SAINT MARON - St. Anthony Maronite Catholic Church".Retrieved16 June2016.
  19. ^abcdeConversion and Continuity.1990.ISBN9780888448095– via books.google.com.
  20. ^"There are 3,198,600 Maronites in the World".Maronite-heritage.com. 3 January 1994.Retrieved3 January2015.
  21. ^Attwater, Donald;The Christian Churches of the East
  22. ^Frendo, J. D. (1982). "Who Killed Anastasius II?".The Jewish Quarterly Review.72(3): 202–204.doi:10.2307/1454219.JSTOR1454219.
  23. ^abMoosa 1986,pp. 195–216.
  24. ^"The Story of the Maronite Catholics - The Maronite Monks of Adoration".Archived fromthe originalon 22 June 2016.Retrieved16 June2016.
  25. ^Crawford, Robert W. (1955)."William of Tyre and the Maronites".Speculum.30(2): 222–228.doi:10.2307/2848470.ISSN0038-7134.JSTOR2848470.S2CID163021809.
  26. ^Donald Attwater(1937). Joseph Husslein (ed.).The Christian Churches of the East: Volume I: Churches in Communion With Rome.Milwaukee:Bruce Publishing Company. pp. 165–167.
  27. ^Bury, J.B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. II, MacMillan & Co., 1889, p. 321
  28. ^Treadgold, Warren T.,Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081,1998, Stanford University Press, p. 72,ISBN0-8047-3163-2,
  29. ^Ostrogorsky, George,History of the Byzantine state,(Joan Hussey, trans.), 1957, Rutgers University Press, pp. 116–122,ISBN0-8135-0599-2
  30. ^ab"PureHost".www.stmaron.org.Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2015.
  31. ^abc"Maronites Between Two Worlds – Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn".www.stmaron.org.Archived fromthe originalon 22 August 2017.Retrieved18 August2018.
  32. ^abJohnston, William M. (4 December 2013).Encyclopedia of Monasticism.Routledge.ISBN9781136787164– via Google Books.
  33. ^"THE EASTERN CHRISTIAN CHURCHES".www.maryourmother.net.Archived fromthe originalon 18 April 2009.Retrieved10 October2009.
  34. ^abcdLa Civita, Michael J.L. (September 2005)."Profiles: The Maronite Church".ONE Magazine.CNEWA.Retrieved18 October2022.
  35. ^abcVan Rompay, Lucas (23 March 2006)."Excursus: The Maronites".InWainwright, Geoffrey;Westerfield Tucker, Karen B.(eds.).The Oxford History of Christian Worship.New York:Oxford University Press.p. 171.ISBN9780195138863.
  36. ^abLeeuwen, Richard Van (23 March 1994).Notables and Clergy in Mount Lebanon: The Khāzin Sheikhs and the Maronite Church, 1736-1840.BRILL.ISBN9004099786– via Google Books.
  37. ^abcO'Mahony, Anthony; Loosley, Emma (16 December 2009).Eastern Christianity in the Modern Middle East.Routledge.ISBN9781135193713– via Google Books.
  38. ^Phan, Peter C. (21 January 2011).Christianities in Asia.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN9781444392609– via Google Books.
  39. ^Moosa 1986,p. 283.
  40. ^
    • Hazran, Yusri (2013).The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation.Routledge. p. 32.ISBN9781317931737.the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian
    • Artzi, Pinḥas (1984).Confrontation and Coexistence.Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 166.ISBN9789652260499... Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.
    • CHURCHILL (1862).The Druzes and the Maronites.Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25...the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..
    • Hobby (1985).Near East/South Asia Report.Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53.the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
  41. ^Fawaz, L.T. (1994).An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860.University of California Press.ISBN9780520087828.Retrieved16 April2015.
  42. ^Vocke, Harald (1978).The Lebanese war: its origins and political dimensions.C. Hurst. p. 10.ISBN0-903983-92-3.
  43. ^Deeb, Marius (2013).Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon.Hoover Press.ISBN9780817916664.the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
  44. ^Hakim, Carol (19 January 2013).The Origins of the Lebanese National Idea: 1840–1920.University of California Press.ISBN9780520954717– via Google Books.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Michael Breydy: Geschichte der syro-arabischen Literatur der Maroniten vom VII. bis XVI. Jahrhundert. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1985,ISBN3-531-03194-5
  • Moosa, Matti,The Maronites in History,Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, 2005,ISBN978-1-59333-182-5
  • R. J. Mouawad,Les Maronites. Chrétiens du Liban,Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, 2009,ISBN978-2-503-53041-3
  • Kamal Salibi,A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered(University of California Press,1990).
  • Maronite Church.New Catholic Encyclopedia,Second Edition, 2003.
  • Riley-Smith, Johnathan.The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades(Oxford University Press,Oxford, 1995)
  • Suermann, Harald.Histoire des origines de l'Eglise Maronite,PUSEK, Kaslik, 2010,ISBN978-9953-491-67-7
  • Barber, Malcolm.Letters from the East: Crusades, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th centuries,Ashgate Press, Reading, United Kingdom, 2013,ISBN978-1-4724-1393-2
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