Mask

For other uses, like protection againsttuberculosisand viruses, seeMask (disambiguation).

Papierkrattlermasks at the Narrensprung 2005 Carnival parade,Ravensburg,Germany

Amaskis an object normally worn on theface,typically forprotection,disguise,performance,orentertainment,and often employed forritualsand rites. Masks have been used since antiquity for bothceremonialandpracticalpurposes, as well as in theperforming artsand for entertainment. They are usually worn on the face, although they may also be positioned for effect elsewhere on the wearer's body.

Inart history,especiallysculpture,"mask" is the term for a face without a body that is not modelled in the round (which would make it a "head" ), but for example appears in lowrelief.

Etymology

The so-called 'Mask of Agamemnon', a 16th-century BC mask discovered byHeinrich Schliemannin 1876 atMycenae,Greece,National Archaeological Museum, Athens

The word "mask" appeared in English in the 1530s, fromMiddle Frenchmasque"covering to hide or guard the face", derived in turn fromItalianmaschera,fromMedieval Latinmasca"mask, specter, nightmare".This word is of uncertain origin, perhaps fromArabicmaskharahمَسْخَرَۃٌ "buffoon", from the verbsakhira"to ridicule". However, it may also come fromProvençalmascarar"to black (the face)" (or the relatedCatalanmascarar,Old Frenchmascurer). This in turn is of uncertain origin – perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English "mesh", but perhaps frommask-"black", a borrowing from apre-Indo-Europeanlanguage.One German author claims the word "mask" is originally derived from the Spanishmás que la cara(literally, "more than the face" or "added face" ), which evolved to "máscara", while the Arabic "maskharat" – referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face – would be based on these Spanish roots.Other related forms areHebrewmasecha= "mask"; Arabicmaskharaمَسْخَرَ = "he ridiculed, he mocked",masakhaمَسَخَ = "he transfomed" (transitive).

History

Funeral maskofK'inich Janaab' Pakalat theNational Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)

The use of masks inritualsorceremoniesis a very ancient human practice across the world,although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation.Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy.

One of the challenges inanthropologyis finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, the invention and use of the mask is only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as a deity, or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role.

The earliest knownanthropomorphicartwork is circa 30,000–40,000 years old.The use of masks is demonstrated graphically at some of these sites. Insofar as masks involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden material, such masks failed to be preserved, however, they are visible inpaleolithiccave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved.At theneanderthalRoche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of a face was found that is approximately 35,000 years old, but it is not clear whether it was intended as a mask.

In the Greekbacchanaliaand theDionysuscult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status.René Guénonclaims that in the Romansaturnaliafestivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended.TheCarnival of Venice,in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD.The use of carnivalesque masks in the JewishPurimfestivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition.

The North AmericanIroquoistribes used masks for healing purposes (seeFalse Face Society). In theHimalayas,masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces.Yup'ik maskscould be small 3-inch (7.6 cm) finger masks, but also 10-kilogram (22 lb) masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people.Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers.

Masks in various forms – sacred, practical, or playful – have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about "what it means to be human", because they permit the imaginative experience of "what it is like" to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity).Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have.

Masks in performance

Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Mosaic,Roman mosaic,second century AD

Batakmask dance at a funeral feast in theDutch East Indies,1930s

Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance – both ritually and in various theatre traditions. Theritualandtheatricaldefinitions of mask use frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image ofjuxtaposed comedy and tragedy masksare widely used to represent the performing arts, and specificallydrama.

In many dramatic traditions including thetheatre of ancient Greece,the classicalnohdrama of Japan (14th century to present), the traditionallhamodrama ofTibet,talchumin Korea, and thetopeng danceofIndonesia,masks were or are typically worn by all the performers, with several different types of mask used for different types of character.

In Ancient Rome, the wordpersonameant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had fullRoman citizenship.A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage throughimagines–death masksof ancestors. These were wax casts kept in alararium(the family shrine). Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors,thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre.

Masks are a familiar and vivid element in manyfolkand traditionalpageants,ceremonies,rituals,andfestivals,and are often of an ancient origin. The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of thecommunityas whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience. The continued popularity of wearing masks atcarnival,and for children at parties and for festivals such asHalloweenare good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popularfilms,televisionprogrammes, orcartooncharacters – they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretense and play and the power and appeal of masks.

Ritual masks

Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the members of a society who use their powers.BiologistJeremy Griffithhas suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect.

In parts of Australia, gianttotemmasks cover the body.

Africa

See also:African tribal masks

Masks ofCameroon

There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa. In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of theYoruba,Igbo,andEdocultures, includingEgungun MasqueradesandNorthern Edo Masquerades.The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver – frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations. Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge.African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of theCaribbean Carnival.

Djolé(also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female.

Fang maskused for thengilceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood,Gabon,19th century

Many African masks represent animals. Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People ofBurkina Fasoknown as the Bwa andNunacall to the spirit to stop destruction. TheDogonofMalihave complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard-working farmer.

Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is theBamanapeople of Mali. The antelope (calledChiwara) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe theantelopesymbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain.

Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks ofPunuofGabonhave highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off. The whiteness of the face represents the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the fact that the masks represent women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is theIdia's Mask ofBeninin present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.

TheSenoufopeople of theIvory Coastrepresent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. TheTemneofSierra Leoneuse masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead. Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. TheGreboof the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat.

Asaro mudmanholding mask, Papua New Guinea

Today, the qualities ofAfrican artare beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks.

Oceania

The variety and beauty of the masks ofMelanesiaare almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture whereancestor worshipis dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies. The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present.

As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic.In Papua New Guinea, six-metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas theduk-dukandtubuanmasks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves.

North America

Kwakwaka'wakw ritual mask (painted wood, fiber, and cord)

North American indigenous cultures in theArcticand para-Arctic regions have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting. In some areas, annualshamanicceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region.Inuitgroups vary widely and share neither a common mythology nor language. Not surprisingly theirmask traditionsare also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. In some areas Inuit women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.

IndigenousPacific Northwestcoastal cultural groups generally included highly skilledwoodworkers.Their masks were often masterpieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, with the parts sometimes moved by pulling cords, or a mask within a mask to represent a magical transformation. The carving of masks was an important feature of woodcraft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such asshields,canoes,poles, and houses.

Woodland tribes, especially in the northeastern and around theGreat Lakes,cross-fertilized culturally with one another. TheIroquoismade spectacular wooden 'false face' masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function.

Pueblocraftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially theHopiandZuni.Thekachinas(gods and spirits) frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers, or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head, and are often highly abstracted forms.Navajomasks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes.

In modern immigrant Euro-American culture, masking is a common feature ofMardi Grastraditions, most notablyin New Orleans.Costumes and masks (originally inspired bymasquerade balls) are frequently worn by "krewe"-members on Mardi Gras Day; local laws against using a mask to conceal one's identity are suspended for the day.

Latin America

Aztec mask ofXiuhtecuhtli,c. 1500, ofMixtec-Aztec provenance

Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200 BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms. In theAndes,masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beatencopperorgold,and occasionally ofclay.

For theAztecs,human skulls were prized as wartrophies,and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance.

In post-colonial Latin America,pre-Columbiantraditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such asAll Souls/Day of the Deaddeveloped, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such asThe Dance of the Moors and Christians.Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors.Wrestlingmatches, where it is common for the participants towear masks,are very popular, and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestlerEl Santocontinued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask.

Asia

China

APeking operamask

In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along theYangtze.Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols fromshamanismandBuddhism.

SanxingduiBronze Mask with Protruding Eyes,Shu

Shigongdance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, whilenuodance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and "Swallowing Animal" masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the "swallowing" of disaster. Opera masks were used in a basic "common" form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today'sPeking opera.

India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China

Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epicsMahabharataandRamayana.Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences –Cambodia,Burma,Indonesia,Thailand,and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles.

The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades ofHinduandBuddhisttemples. These faces orKirtimukhas,'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region.

Indonesia

Main article:Topeng

In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods.Native Indonesiantribes such asDayakhave masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. InJavaandBali,masked dance is commonly calledtopengand demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such asRamayanaandMahabharata.The native story ofPanjialso popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo.

Japan

Mask ofTengu

Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are thegigaku.The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. Thebugakudeveloped from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws.

Thenōornohmask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. Thenōmask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making.Nōmasks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions.Kyōgenare short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays.Kabukiis the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces.

Korea

A Korean mask worn by aTalchumperformer

See also:Korean mask

Korean masks have a long tradition associated with shamanism and later in ritual dance. Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or onmobile phones,where they hang as good-luck talismans.

traditional Korean masks,Hahoetal(Kaksi, Yangban and Sonpi)

Middle East

Golden masks excavated from theKalmakareh CaveinLorestan,Iran, first half of first Millennium BC,National Museum of Iran

Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising human relationships with nature, the deities, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre – mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling – had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According toGeorge Goyan,this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of their lives (seeMasks in Performanceabove).

Europe

Greek mask

Meteņimumminggroup (Budēļi,Buduļi or Būduļi) ofZemgaleandCourlandregions inLatvia,2016

A Venetian carnival mask

The oldest representations of masks in Europe are animal masks, such as thecave paintingsofLascauxin theDordognein southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting orshamanism.Masks are used throughout Europe in modern times, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen inmuseumsand other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably representnature spirits,and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction ofChristianity,which incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions. In that process their meanings were changed also so, for example, oldgodsand goddesses originally associated with the celebrations were demonised and viewed as meredevils,or were subjugated to theAbrahamic God.

Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is theFool,sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting types, Handsome and Ugly.Masks also tend to be associated with New Year andCarnivalfestivals.

The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, wheremonsters,bears,wild men,harlequins,hobby horses,and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour, and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring.InSardiniaexisted the tradition ofMamuthones e IssohadoresofMamoiada;Boes e MerdulesofOttana;ThurposofOrotelli;S'Urtzu,Su 'OmadoreandSos MamutzonesofSamugheo.The celebration ofGiubianainCanzo(Lombardy) preserves a tradition of masks ofanguane,wild man,bearand its hunter, and Giubiana herself, among others.

Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed byguildsand co-fraternities. These grew out of the earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places such as Rome andVenice,where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus theMaundy Thursdaycarnival in St. Marks Square in Venice, attended by theDogeand aristocracy, also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers.There is evidence of 'commedia dell'arte'-inspiredVenetian masksand by the late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January untilLent.By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction,Goethesaying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask. The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the 18th century heyday were revived.It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by the Venetian model.

During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side by side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas.Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries.Nowadays, duringcarnival in the Netherlandsmasks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort.

In the beginning of the new century, on 19 August 2004, theBulgarianarchaeologistGeorgi Kitovdiscovered a 673 g gold mask in the burial mound "Svetitsata" nearShipka,CentralBulgaria.It is a very fine piece of workmanship made out of massive 23karatgold. Unlike other masks discovered in theBalkans(of which three are inRepublic of Macedoniaand two in Greece), it is now kept in theNational Archaeological MuseuminSofia.It is considered to be the mask of aThracianking, presumablyTeres.

Masks in theatre

Masked dancers at atshechufestival,Bhutan,2013

Masks play a key part within world theatre traditions. They continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage takes a variety of forms and has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions.

In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors inAncient Greek theatrewore masks, as they do in traditional JapaneseNohdrama. In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained abrassmegaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery andmiracle playsto portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore agoldor gilt mask. During theRenaissance,masquesandballet de courdeveloped – courtly masked entertainments that continued as part ofballetconventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of theCommedia dell'arteincluded the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongsidepuppetryto create a theatre that is essentially visual, rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists.

Contemporary theatre

Three photographs of the samenohmask of a woman show how her expression appears to change with a tilting of the head of the performer - to demonstrate the effect, the mask was affixed to a wall with constant lighting and only the camera was moved

Masks andpuppetswere often incorporated into the theatre work of Europeanavant-gardeartists from the turn of the nineteenth century.Alfred Jarry,Pablo Picasso,Oskar Schlemmer,other artists of theBauhausSchool, as well assurrealistsandDadaists,experimented with theatre forms and masks in their work.

In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such asMeyerhold,Edward Gordon Craig,Jacques Copeau,and others in their lineage, attempted to move away from Naturalism. They turned to sources such as Oriental Theatre (particularly JapaneseNohtheatre) andcommedia dell'arte,both of which forms feature masks prominently.

Edward Gordon Craig(1872–1966) inA Note on Masks(1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor.Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up byBrecht,Cocteau,Genet,Eugene O'Neill– and later byArden,Grotowski,Brook,and others who "attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre".

Copeau, in his attempts to "Naturalise" actors,decided to use masks to liberate them from their "excessive awkwardness". In turn, Copeau's work with masks was taken on by his students includingEtienne Decrouxand later, viaJean DasteandJacques Lecoq.Lecoq, having worked as movement director at Teatro Piccalo in Italy, was influenced by the Commedia tradition. Lecoq metAmleto Satori,a sculptor, and they collaborated on reviving the techniques of making traditional leather Commedia masks. Later, developing Copeau's "noble mask", Lecoq would ask Satori to make himmasques neutre(the neutral mask). For Lecoq, masks became an important training tool, the neutral mask being designed to facilitate a state of openness in the student-performers, moving gradually on to character and expressive masks, and finally to "the smallest mask in the world" the clown's red-nose. One highly important feature of Lecoq's use of mask, wasn't so much its visual impact on stage, but how it changed the performers movement on stage. It was a body-based approach to mask work, rather than a visually led one.Lecoq's pedagogy has been hugely influential for theatre practitioners in Europe working with mask and has been exported widely across the world. This work with masks also relates toperforming with portable structuresandpuppetry.Students of Lecoq have continued using masks in their work after leaving the school, such as inJohn Wright'sTrestle Theatre.

In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as theSan Francisco Mime TroupeandBread and Puppet Theatretook advantage of it. Influenced by modern dance, modern mime, Commedia dell'arte and Brecht such groups took to the streets to perform highly political theatre.Peter Schumann,the founder of Bread and Puppet theatre, made particular use of German Carnival masks.Bread and Puppet inspired other practitioners around the world, many of whom used masks in their work. In the US and Canada, these companies includeIn the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask TheaterofMinneapolis;Arm-of-the Sea Theatre fromNew York State;Snake Theater fromCalifornia;and Shadowland Theatre ofToronto,Ontario. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. Another route masks took into American Theatre was via dancer/choreographers such asMary Wigman,who had been using masks in dance and had emigrated to America to flee theNazi regime.

In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups such as Moving Picture Mime Show andWelfare State(both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU andHorse and Bamboo Theatre,who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure.

Functional masks

For other functional masks, seeMask (disambiguation).

Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective, including in sports and during plagues:

Medical

A person donsPPEand asurgical N95in a hospital

Vietnamese youth wear surgical masks during theCOVID-19 pandemic

Some masks are used for medical purposes:

• N95 respirator,used for the prevention oftuberculosisand otherpathogens
  • FFP2,European equivalent
• Oxygen mask,a piece of medical equipment that assists breathing.
• Anesthetic mask.
• Burn mask,a piece of medical equipment that protects the burn tissue from contact with other surfaces, and minimises the risk of infection.
• Surgical mask,a tool forrespiratory source control.
• Face shield,to protect a medical professional from bodily fluids.
• Pocket maskorCPR mask,used to safely deliver rescue breaths during a cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest.
• Cloth face mask,an alternative to respirators and surgical masks during shortages.

Protective

Protectivereusable filter maskworn byNYPDofficer

Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions:

• Providing a supply of air or filtering the outside air (respiratorsanddust masks).
• Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision.

In Romangladiatorialtournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating. InmedievalEurope and in Japan soldiers andsamuraiwore similarly ferocious-looking protectivearmour,extending to face-masks.

In the 16th century, theVisardwas worn by women to protect fromsunburn.Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas.

In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor.

Before strong transparent materials such aspolycarbonatewere invented,visorsto protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits ofarmour,and (for example)Old Norsegrímrmeant "mask or visor".

Disguise

Arib knitthree-hole balaclava allows the wearer to protect the face against cold air or hinderrecognition

Members ofAnonymouswear Guy Fawkes masks while protesting against theChurch of Scientology,2008, London

Masks are sometimes used to avoidrecognition.As a disguise the mask acts as a form of protection for the wearer who wishes to assume a role or task without being identified by others.

• Robbersand other criminal perpetrators may wear masks as a means in concealing their faces and thus identities from their victims and from law enforcement.
• Occasionally awitnessfor theprosecutionappears incourtin a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused.
• Participants in ablack blocatprotestsusually wear masks, oftenbandannas,to avoid recognition, and to try to protect against anyriot control agentsused.
• In fiction,superheroesandsupervillainsoften wear masks orcowlsfor protection and tobrandthemselves.

Masks are also used to prevent recognition while showing membership of a group:

• Masks are use by penitents in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. TheSemana Santaparades throughout Spain and inHispanicorCatholiccountries throughout the world are examples of this, with their cone-shaped masks known ascapirote.
• Masks are used byvigilantegroups.
• The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with theKu Klux Klanin a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image.
• Members of the groupAnonymousfrequently wear masks (usuallyGuy Fawkes masks,best known fromV for Vendetta) when they attend protests.

While theniqābusually shows membership of someIslamiccommunity, its purpose is not to hinder recognition, although it falls under someanti-mask lawssuch as theFrench ban on face covering.

Occupational

See also:NIOSH air filtration rating,FFP standards,andbreathing apparatus

• Beaked masks containing herbs in the beak were worn inearly modern Europeby plague doctorsto try to ward off theBlack Death.
• Filter mask,a piece of safety equipment.
• Full-face diving maskas part ofself-contained breathing apparatusfor divers and others; some let the wearer talk to others through a built-in communication device
• Respirator(gas or particulate mask), a mask worn on the face to protect the body from airborne pollutants and toxic materials, and fineparticulate matteror infectious particles.
• Oxygen maskworn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients
• Welding maskto protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding

Sports

An American football player wearing a mask that protects his face from another player's hand

• American football helmet face mask
• Balaclava,also known as a "ski mask", to protect the face against cold air.
• Baseballcatcher's mask.
• Diving mask,an item of diving equipment that allows scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers to see clearly underwater.
• Fencingmask.
• Goaltender mask,a mask worn by aniceorfield hockeygoaltender to protect the head and face from injury.
• Hurlinghelmets were made mandatory in 2010, and have a wire mask on the front to protect the player's face.
• Kendo,a mask calledMenis used in this Japanese sword-fighting martial art.
• Paintball mask.
• Visor (ice hockey).

An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is thewrestling mask,a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latinlucha librestyle of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of animals,gods,ancientheroes,and otherarchetypes.The mask is considered "sacred" to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function.

Punitive

A medieval "Mask of Shame"

Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering:

• Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, for example theScold's bridle,are fit as devices for humiliation,corporal punishmentortorture.
• Masks were used to alienate andsilenceprisoners in Australian jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible.
• Use of masks is also common inBDSMpractices.

Fashion

Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as amasque,and relates closely tocarnivalstyles. For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes.

Several artists in the 20th and 21st century, such asIsamaya FfrenchandDamselfrau,create masks aswearable art.

• Wrestling masksare used most widely inMexicanand Japanese wrestling. A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler'spersona(for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are looked down upon in the United States and Canada.
• Several bands and performers, notably members of the groupsSlipknot,Mental Creepers andGwar,and the guitaristBuckethead,wear masks when they perform on stage. Several other groups, includingKiss,Alice Cooper,andDimmu Borgirsimulate the effect with facepaint.Hollywood Undeadalso wears masks but often remove them mid-performance.
• Leather-working,steampunk,and other methods and themes are occasionally used to createartisanalgas masks.

One user of masks in fashion is musician and fashion designerKanye West.West has donned masks fromBalenciagaandMaison Margiela,most notably on hisYeezus Tour.

In works of fiction

Main article:Masked villain

Masks have been used in manyhorror filmsto conceal the identities of the killer. Notable examples includeJason Voorheesof theFriday the 13thseries,Jigsaw KillerfromSaw,Ghostfaceof theScreamseries, andMichael Myersof theHalloweenseries.

Drama

• Bridal Mask- 2012 South Korean television series

Other types

• A "buccal mask"is a mask that covers only the cheeks (hence the adjective" buccal ") and mouth.
• Adeath maskis a mask either cast from or applied to the face of a recently deceased person.
• A "facial"(short for facial mask) is a temporary mask, not solid, used in cosmetics or as therapy for skin treatment.
• A "life mask" is aplastercast of a face, used as a model for making a painting or sculpture.
• Ananimal roleplaymask is used for people to create a more animal-like image in fetish role play.
• A variety of technologies attempt to fool facial recognition software by the use ofanti-facial recognition masks.

Gallery

• 
  Kwakwaka'wakw,Baleen Whale Mask, 19th century,Brooklyn Museum
• 
  ACherokeeceremonial mask made of wood
• 
  VariousBalinese topengdance masks
• 
  Fools Meeting or Parade,Meßkirch,Germany
• 
  Dance Mask (Takü), 20th century,Brooklyn Museum;These full-body masks are worn for the mourning, or ónyo ( "weeping" ), ceremony, a multi-day ritual held approximately a year after an individual's death
• 
  Taiwanese PresidentTsai Ing-wenwearing asurgical maskduring theCOVID-19 pandemic
• 
  Life mask ofLudwig van Beethoven,c. 1812.The Wellcome Collection, London
• 
  Life mask ofAbraham LincolnbyLeonard Volkin 1860.
• 
  Mask wearing customers in downtown Budapest.
• 
  From the picture album "Shunyū bijo no yukaeri" 19th Century
• 
  Performers with masks. Mosaic. House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii
• 
  Mask of Silen. Bronze. First half of 1st century BC

See also

• Anti-mask law
• Character mask
• Pareidolia
• Domino mask
• Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

Further reading

• Burch, Ernest S. (junior); Forman, Werner (1988).The Eskimos.Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN0-8061-2126-2.
• Hessel, Ingo; Hessel, Dieter (1998).Inuit Art. An introduction.foreword by George Swinton. 46 Bloomsbury Street, London WCIB 3QQ: British Museum Press.ISBN0-7141-2545-8.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link)
• Huteson, Pamela Rae (2007).Transformation Masks.Hancock House Publishers.ISBN978-0-88839-635-8.
• Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985).Eskimos: Greenland and Canada.Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill.ISBN90-04-07160-1.
• Mauss, Marcel(1979) [c1950].Seasonal variations of the Eskimo: a study in social morphology.in collab. with Henri Beuchat; translated, with a foreword, by James J. Fox. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.ISBN0-415-33035-1.
• Oosten, Jarich G. (1997). "Cosmological Cycles and the Constituents of the Person". In S. A. Mousalimas (ed.).Arctic Ecology and Identity.ISTOR Books 8. Budapest • Los Angeles: Akadémiai Kiadó • International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research. pp. 85–101.ISBN963-05-6629-X.
• Rasmussen, Knud(1926).Thulefahrt.Frankfurt am Main: Frankurter Societăts-Druckerei.
• Rasmussen, Knud (1965).Thulei utazás.Világjárók (in Hungarian). translated by Detre, Zsuzsa. Budapest: Gondolat.Hungarian translation of Rasmussen 1926.
• Sivin, Carole (1986). "Maskmaking". Worcester, Massachusetts, USA: Davis Publications, Inc.
• Wilsher, Toby, "The Mask Handbook – A Practical Guide", Routledge 2007, www.routledge.com

External links

• Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice(archived 26 July 2014)
• The Mythic Mask: mask history and contemporary mask art^[usurped](archived 11 November 2006)
• The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion
• Mask Makers of Mas, Bali(video onYouTube)
• Smithsonian Institution African Mask Links
• Virtual Museum of Death MaskArchived8 March 2018 at theWayback Machine
• Gallery of Masks from Around the WorldArchived18 April 2014 at theWayback Machine
• Costa Rica Traditional Face Mask