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McGill University

Coordinates:45°30′15″N73°34′29″W/ 45.50417°N 73.57472°W/45.50417; -73.57472
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McGill University
Coat of arms
Other name
Université McGill (French)
Former name
McGill College or University of McGill College (1821–1885)
Motto
  • Grandescunt Aucta Labore
  • On legend:In Domino Confido
Motto in English
  • By work, all things increase and grow
  • On legend:I trust in the Lord[1]
TypePublicresearch university
EstablishedMarch 31, 1821;203 years ago(1821-03-31)[2]
FounderJames McGill
Academic affiliation
AAU,ACU,AUCC,AUF,ATS,CARL,CBIE,BCI,CUSID,GULF,UArctic,UNAI,U15,URA
EndowmentCA$2.109billion[3]
BudgetCA$1.555billion[4]
ChairMaryse Bertrand
ChancellorPierre Boivin
PresidentH. Deep Saini[5][6]
VisitorMary Simon(asGovernor General of Canada)
Academic staff
3,476 (staff) 1,747 tenure track, 1,667 non-tenure track (faculty)[7]
Administrative staff
4,327[8]
Students39,513 (2022)[9]
Undergraduates27,085 (2022)[9]
Postgraduates10,344 (2022)[9]
Other students
2,084 (2022)[9]
Location
Montreal, Quebec
,
Canada

45°30′15″N73°34′29″W/ 45.50417°N 73.57472°W/45.50417; -73.57472
Campus
LanguageEnglish
NewspapersThe McGill Daily
The Tribune
ColoursMcGill Red and White[11]
NicknameMcGill Redbirds and Martlets
Sporting affiliations
MascotMarty theMartlet
Websitewww.mcgill.ca

McGill University(French: Université McGill) is an English-languagepublicresearch Universitylocated inMontreal, Quebec,Canada.Founded in 1821 byroyal charter,[12]the University bears the name ofJames McGill,aScottishmerchant,[13]whosebequestin 1813 established theUniversity of McGill College.In 1885, the name was officially changed to McGill University.

Currently, McGill has an enrollment of close to 35,000 students. Its main campus is on the slope ofMount Royalindowntown Montrealin the borough ofVille-Marie,with asecond campussituated inSainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the main campus on Montreal Island. The University is one of two members of theAssociation of American Universitieslocated outside the United States,[14]alongside theUniversity of Toronto,and is the only Canadian member of theGlobal University Leaders Forum(GULF) within theWorld Economic Forum.[15]The University offers degrees and diplomas in over 300 fields of study. Most students are enrolled in the six largest faculties:Arts,Science,Medicine,Education,Engineering,andManagement.[16]

McGill alumni, faculty, and affiliates include 12Nobel laureates[17]and 148Rhodes Scholars,[18]thecurrent prime ministerand two formerprime ministers of Canada,and twoGovernors General of Canada.McGill alumni also include 9Academy Awardwinners,[note 1]13Grammy Awardwinners,[note 2]13Emmy Awardwinners,[note 3]fourPulitzer Prizewinners,[note 4]and 121Olympianswith over 35Olympicmedals.[21]

History

Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning

James McGill,the originalbenefactorof McGill University

The Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning (RIAL) was created in 1801 under an Act of theLegislative Assembly of Lower Canada(41 George III Chapter 17),An Act for the establishment of Free Schools and the Advancement of Learning in this Province.[22]The RIAL was initially authorized to operate two new Royal Grammar Schools, in Quebec City and in Montreal. This was a turning point for public education in Lower Canada as the schools were created by legislation, which showed the government's willingness to support the costs of education and even the salary of a schoolmaster. This was an important first step in the creation of non-denominational schools. When James McGill died in 1813, his bequest was administered by the RIAL.

In 1846 the Royal Grammar School in Quebec City closed, and the one in Montreal merged with theHigh School of Montreal.By the mid-19th century, the RIAL had lost control of the other eighty-twogrammar schoolsit had administered.[23]However, in 1853 it took over the High School of Montreal from the school's board of directors and continued to operate it until 1870.[24][25]Thereafter, its sole remaining purpose was to administer the McGill bequest on behalf of the private college. The RIAL continues to exist today; it is thecorporate identitythat runs the University and its various constituent bodies, including the former Macdonald College (now Macdonald Campus), theMontreal Neurological Institute,and the Royal Victoria College (the former women's college turned residence). Since the revised Royal Charter of 1852, the trustees of the RIAL are the board of governors of McGill University.[12]

McGill College

George Jehoshaphat Mountain.jpg
The first Principal of McGill College, The Rt. Rev.George Mountain

James McGillwas born inGlasgow,Scotland, on October 6, 1744. He was a successful merchant in Quebec, having matriculated into theUniversity of Glasgowin 1756.[26][27]Soon afterwards, McGill left for North America to explore the business opportunities there, especially in the fur trade. McGill was also a slave owner, and the McGill household enslaved at least five Black and Indigenous people.[28]Between 1811 and 1813,[29]he drew up a will leaving his "Burnside estate", a 19-hectare (47-acre) tract of rural land and 10,000poundsto the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning.[30][31][32]

As a condition of the bequest, the land and funds had to be used for the establishment of a "University or College, for the purposes of Education and the Advancement of Learning in the said Province."[2]The will specified a private, constituent college[12]bearing his name would have to be established within ten years of his death; otherwise, the bequest would revert to the heirs of his wife.[33]

On March 31, 1821, after protractedlegal battleswith the Desrivières family (the heirs of his wife), McGill College received a royal charter fromKing George IV.The charter provided the college should be deemed and taken as aUniversity,with the power of conferringdegrees.[2]The thirdLord Bishop of Quebec,The Right ReverendDr.George Mountain,(DCL,Oxford) was appointed the first principal of McGill College and a professor of divinity. He is also responsible for the creation ofBishop's Universityin 1843 andBishop's College Schoolin 1836 in theEastern Townships.[34]

University development

Campus expansions

SirJohn William Dawson,Principal of McGill University, 1855–1893
TheArts Building,completed in 1843 and designed byJohn Ostell,is the oldest existing building on campus.

Although McGill College received its Royal Charter in 1821, it was inactive until 1829 when the Montreal Medical Institution, which had been founded in 1823, became the college's first academic unit and Canada's first medical school. The Faculty of Medicine granted its first degree, a Doctorate of Medicine and Surgery, in 1833; this was also the first medical degree to be awarded in Canada.[35]

TheFaculty of Medicineremained the school's only functioning faculty until 1843 when the Faculty of Arts commenced teaching in the newly constructedArts Buildingand East Wing (Dawson Hall).[36]

TheFaculty of Lawwas founded in 1848 and is also the oldest of its kind in the nation. In 1896, theMcGill School of Architecturewas the second architecture school to be established in Canada, six years after the University of Toronto in 1890.[37]Sir John William Dawson,McGill's principal from 1855 to 1893, is often credited with transforming the school into a modern University.[38]

William Spier designed the addition of the West Wing of the Arts Building for William Molson, 1861.[39]Alexander Francis Dunlopdesigned major alterations to the East Wing of McGill College (now called the Arts Building, McGill University) for Prof. Bovey and the Science Dept., 1888.[40]George Allan Ross designed the Pathology Building, 1922–23; the Neurological Institute, 1933; Neurological Institute addition 1938 at McGill University.[41]Jean Julien Perrault (architect) designed theMcTavish Streetresidence for Charles E. Gravel, which is now called David Thompson House (1934).[42]

Women's education

Women's education at McGill began in 1884 whenDonald Smith(later theLord Strathcona and Mount Royal), began funding separate lectures for women, given by University staff members. The first degrees granted to women at McGill were conferred in 1888.[43]In 1899, the Royal Victoria College (RVC) opened as a residential college for women at McGill withHilda D. Oakeleyas the head. Until the 1970s, all female undergraduate students, known as "Donaldas," were considered to be members of RVC.[44]Beginning in the autumn of 2010, the newer Tower section of Royal Victoria College became a mixed gender dormitory, whereas the older West Wing remains strictly for women. Both the Tower and the West Wing of Royal Victoria College form part of the University's residence system.[45]

McGill in the Great War

The Second University Company prior to their departure for France
Stained Glass Great War Memorial entrance to the Blackader-Lauterman Library of Architecture and Art

Many students and alumni enlisted in the first wave of patriotic fervour that swept the nation in 1914 at the outbreak ofWorld War I,but in the spring of 1915—after the first wave of heavy Canadian casualties at Ypres—Hamilton Gault, the founder of the Canadian regiment and a wealthy Montreal businessman, was faced with a desperate shortage of troops. When he reached out to his friends at home for support, over two hundred were commissioned from the ranks, and many more would serve as soldiers throughout the war. On their return to Canada after the war, Major George McDonald and MajorGeorge Currieformed the accounting firm McDonald Currie, which later became one of the founders ofPrice Waterhouse Coopers.[46]CaptainPercival Molsonwas killed in action in July 1917.Percival Molson Memorial Stadiumat McGill is named in his honour.

The War Memorial Hall (more generally known as Memorial Hall) is a landmark building on the campus of McGill University. At the dedication ceremony, the Governor General of Canada (Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis) laid the cornerstone. Dedicated on October 6, 1946, the Memorial Hall and adjoining Memorial Pool honour students who had enlisted and died in theFirst World War,and in theSecond World War.In Memorial Hall, there are two Stained Glass Regimental badges, World War I and World War II Memorial Windows byCharles William Kelseyc. 1950/1.[47]

A war memorial window (1950) by Charles William Kelsey in the McGill War Memorial Hall depicts the figure of St. Michael and the badges of the Navy, Army and the Air Force. A Great War memorial window featuring Saint George and a slain dragon at the entrance to the Blackader-Lauterman Library of Architecture and Art is dedicated to the memory of 23 members of the McGill chapter ofDelta Upsilonwho gave their lives in the Great War.[48]

There is a memorial archway atMacdonald Campus,two additional floors added to the existingSir Arthur Curriegymnasium, a hockey rink and funding for an annual Memorial Assembly. A Book of Remembrance on a marble table contains the names of those lost in both World Wars. On November 11, 2012, the McGill Remembers website launched; the University War Records Office collected documents between 1940 and 1946 related to McGill students, staff and faculty in the Second World War.[49]

Founder of universities and colleges

McGill was instrumental in founding several major universities and colleges. It established the first post-secondary institutions inBritish Columbiato provide degree programs to the growing cities ofVancouverandVictoria.It charteredVictoria Collegein 1903 as an affiliated junior college of McGill, offering first and second-year courses in arts and science, until it became today'sUniversity of Victoria.British Columbia's first University was incorporated in Vancouver in 1908 as theMcGill University College of British Columbia.The private institution granted McGill degrees until it became the independent University of British Columbia in 1915.[50]

Dawson Collegebegan in 1945 as a satellite campus of McGill to absorb the anticipated influx of students afterWorld War II.Many students in their first three years in the Faculty of Engineering took courses at Dawson College to relieve the McGill campus for the later two years for their degree course. Dawson eventually became independent of McGill and evolved into the first EnglishCEGEPin Quebec. Another CEGEP,John Abbott College,was established in 1971 at the campus of McGill's Macdonald College.[51]

Both founders of theUniversity of Alberta,PremierAlexander Cameron Rutherfordof Alberta andHenry Marshall Tory,were also McGill alumni. In addition, McGill alumni and professors,Sir William OslerandHoward Atwood Kelly,were among the four founders and early faculty members of theJohns Hopkins University School of Medicine.[52]Osler eventually became the first Physician-in-Chief of the newJohns Hopkins HospitalinBaltimore,Maryland, US in 1889. He led the creation of theJohns Hopkins University School of Medicinein 1893.[53]Other McGill alumni founded theSchulich School of Medicine & Dentistryin the 1880s.[54]By 1961, McGill had an enrolment of 8,507 students and 925 graduate students.[55]Since the 1960s McGill has experienced government funding curtailment.[56]According to a 2016 report, McGill had a $1.3 billion deferred maintenance bill.[57]The report also identified that 73 per cent of the University's buildings were in poor or very poor shape.[58]

Controversy

McGill University, alongside other universities like theUniversité de Montréaland theUniversity of Toronto Faculty of Medicine,had longstanding quotas in place from 1920 to the late 1960s on the number of Jews admitted to the respective universities.[59][60][61]The quota limited the Jewish student population in medicine and law to at most 10 per cent.[62] McGill University was the subject of controversy when in January 2023, McGill University's Centre for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism (CHRLP) hosted the event, titled Sex vs. Gender (Identity) Debate In the United Kingdom and the Divorce of LGB from T. It was led by McGill alumnus Robert Wintemute. Transgender activist groups stormed the talk at McGill led by a speaker associated with a group they claimed was "notoriously transphobic and trans-exclusionary." The talk was cancelled shortly after it started.[63]

Campus

Downtown campus

McGill's main campus is located indowntown Montrealat the foot ofMount Royal.[64]Most of its buildings are in a park-like campus (also known as the Lower Campus) north ofSherbrooke Streetand south ofPine AvenuebetweenPeeland Aylmer streets. The campus extends west of Peel Street (also known as Upper Campus) for several blocks, starting north ofDoctor Penfield;the campus also streches east ofUniversity Street,starting north of Pine Avenue, an area that includes McGill'sPercival Molson Memorial Stadiumand theMontreal Neurological Institute and Hospital.The community immediately east of University Street and south of Pine Avenue is known asMilton-Park,where a large number of students reside. The campus is near thePeelandMcGillMetrostations. A major downtown boulevard,McGill College Avenue,leads up to the Roddick Gates, the University's formal entrance. Many of the major University buildings were constructed using local greylimestone,which serves as a unifying element.[65]A number of these buildings are connected by indoor tunnels.[66]

The University's first classes were held in at Burnside Place, James McGill's country home.[32][67]Burnside Place remained the sole educational facility until the 1840s, when the school began construction on its first buildings: the central and east wings of the Arts Building.[68]The rest of the campus was essentially a cowpasture,a situation similar to the few other Canadian universities and early American colleges of the age.[69]

The University's athletic facilities, includingMolson Stadium,are on Mount Royal, near the residence halls and the Montreal Neurological Institute. The Gymnasium is named in honour of GeneralSir Arthur William Currie.[70]

Residence system

McGill's residence system comprises 16 properties providing dormitories, apartments, and hotel-style housing to approximately 3,100 undergraduate students and some graduate students from the downtown and Macdonald campuses.[71][72]With the exception of students returning as "floor fellows,"few McGill students live inresidenceafter their first year of undergraduate study, even if they are not from the Montreal area. Most second-year students transition to off-campus apartment housing. Many students settle in theMilton-Parkneighbourhood, sometimes called the "McGill Ghetto,"[73]which is the neighbourhood directly to the east of the downtown campus. Students have also moved to areas such asMile End,The Plateau,and even as far asVerdunbecause of rising rent prices.[74]

Many first-year students live in the Upper Residence.[75][76]Royal Victoria College opened as a residential college for women in 1899, but its Tower section became mixed gender in September 2010 while its West Wing remains strictly for women.[45]The college's original building was designed byBruce Priceand its extension was designed byPercy Erskine Nobbsand George Taylor Hyde.[77]A statue ofQueen Victoriaby her daughterPrincess Louise, Duchess of Argyll,stands in front of the building.[78]

Macdonald campus

Main article:Macdonald Campus
Macdonald Campus under construction in 1906

A second campus, theMacdonald Campus,inSainte-Anne-de-Bellevuehouses the Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Science, the School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, the Institute of Parasitology, and the McGill School of Environment. As of fall 2020, despite a decrease in enrollment from the previous year's 1,962 students, the campus has a total of 1,892 actively enrolled students, including those studying part-time and full-time, across all available programs. Of the total, 1,212 students are pursuing an undergraduate degree, 374 are pursuing a Masters-level degree, and 248 are pursuing a Doctoral-level degree, respectively. There is a high international student presence, since over 1 in 5 students are from outside Canada. The campus is considered by many to be quieter than the Downtown Montreal campus. TheMorgan Arboretumand theJ. S. Marshall Radar Observatoryare nearby.

The MorganArboretumwas created in 1945. It is a 2.5-square-kilometre (0.965 sq mi) forested reserve. Its mandated goals are to continue research related to maintaining the health of the Arboretumplantationsandwoodlands,to develop new programs related to selectingspeciesadaptedto developing environmental conditions and to enhancebiological diversityin both natural stands and plantations.[79]

Outaouais campus

In 2019, McGill announced the construction of a new campus for its Faculty of Medicine inGatineau,Quebec, which will allow students from theOutaouaisregion to complete their undergraduate medical education locally and in French. Medical students began using the new facility in August 2020.[80]The new facility is located above the emergency room at Gatineau Hospital, part of the Centre intégré de santé et de services sociaux (CISSS) de l'Outaouais, in addition to new offices for the associated Family Medicine Unit forresidency training.[80]Although the preparatory year for students entering the undergraduate medical education program from CEGEP was initially planned to be offered solely at the McGill downtown campus in Montreal,[80][81]collaboration with theUniversité du Québec en Outaouaismade it possible to offer the program entirely in Gatineau.[82]

McGill University Health Centre redevelopment plan

In 2006, the Quebec government initiated a $1.6 billionLEEDredevelopment project for theMcGill University Health Centre(MUHC). The project will expand facilities to two separate campuses[83]and consolidate the various hospitals of the MUHC on the site of an oldCPrail yardadjacent to theVendômeMetrostation. This site, known as Glen Yards, comprises 170,000 square metres (1,800,000 sq ft) and spans portions of Montreal'sNotre-Dame-de-Grâceneighbourhood and the city ofWestmount.[84]

The Glen Yards project has been controversial due to local opposition to the project, environmental issues, and the project's cost.[85]

Sustainability

In 2007, McGill premiered its Office of Sustainability and added a second full-time position in this area, the Director of Sustainability in addition to the Sustainability Officer.[86]Recent efforts in implementing its sustainable development plan include the new Life Sciences Centre which was built with LEED-Silver certification and a green roof, as well as an increase in parking rates in January 2008 to fund other sustainability projects.[86]Other student projects include The Flat: Bike Collective, which promotes alternative transportation, and the Farmer's Market, which occurs during the fall harvest.[87]

McGill Community for Lifelong Learning

Founded in 1989, the McGill Community for Lifelong Learning (MCLL) is an educational community for senior learners housed in the McGill School of Continuing Studies. The program was founded by Fiona Clark, then-assistant director of continuing studies at McGill, and drew inspiration from horizontal peer-led programs, including theHarvardInstitute for Learning in Retirement.[88]Its educational model[89]is notably different from an instructor-led approach, and tasks seniors exploring educational interest as either study group moderators or participants. The program brings together hundreds of senior members yearly and has acted as a springboard for numerous senior-led initiatives such as social events, educational symposiums, and cultural festivals, including an internationally recognized yearly Bloomsday event on the life and work of author James Joyce.[90]

Other facilities

The newly builtMcGill University Health Centreat the Glen Site

McGill'sBellairs Research Institute,inSaint James, Barbados13°10′N59°35′W/ 13.167°N 59.583°W/13.167; -59.583,is Canada's only teaching and research facility in the tropics.[91]The institute has been in use for over 50 years. The University also operates theMcGill Arctic Research StationonAxel Heiberg Island,Nunavut,and a Subarctic Research Station inSchefferville, Quebec.

McGill's GaultNature Reserve(45°32′N73°10′W/ 45.533°N 73.167°W/45.533; -73.167) spans over 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) of forest land, the largest remaining remnant of theprimeval forestsof theSt. Lawrence River Valley.[92]The first scientific studies at the site occurred in 1859. The site has been the site of extensive research activities: "Today there are over 400 scientific articles, 100 graduate theses, more than 50 government reports and about 30 book chapters based on research atMont St. Hilaire."[93]

In addition to the McGill University Health Centre, McGill has been directly partnered with manyteaching hospitalsfor decades and has a history of collaborating with many hospitals in Montreal. These cooperations allow the University to graduate over 1,000 students inhealth careeach year.[94]McGill's contract-affiliated teaching hospitals include theMontreal Children's Hospital,theMontreal General Hospital,theMontreal Neurological Hospital,theMontreal Chest Instituteand theRoyal Victoria Hospitalwhich are all now part of theMcGill University Health Centre.Other hospitals health care students may use include theJewish General Hospital,theDouglas Hospital,St. Mary's Hospital Centre,Lachine Hospital,LaSalle Hospital,Lakeshore General Hospital,as well as health care facilities part of the CISSS.[95]

Administration and organization

Structure

The University's academic units are organized into 11 main Faculties and 13 Schools.[96]These include theSchool of Architecture,theSchool of Computer Science,theSchool of Information Studies,the School of Human Nutrition, the Bensadoun School of Retail Management, the Max Bell School of Public Policy, the School of Physical & Occupational Therapy, the Ingram School of Nursing, the School of Social Work, theSchool of Urban Planning,and the Bieler School of Environment. They also include theInstitute of Islamic Studies(established in 1952), which offers graduate courses leading to the M.A. and PhD degrees.

The Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies[97](GPS) oversees the admission and registration of graduate students (both master's and PhD).

Faculties/Schools[96]
Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Arts
School of Continuing Studies
Faculty of Dentistry
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Law
Desautels Faculty of Management
Faculty of Medicine
Schulich School of Music
Faculty of Religious Studies
Faculty of Science

University identity and culture

See also:Heraldry of McGill University
McGillcoat of arms

The McGillcoat of armsis derived from an armorial device assumed during his lifetime by the founder of the University, James McGill. It was designed in 1906 byPercy Nobbs,three years into his term as director of the University'sSchool of Architecture.[98]The University's patent of arms was subsequently granted by theGarter King at Armsin 1922, registered in 1956 withLord Lyon King of Armsin Edinburgh, and in 1992 with thePublic Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada.In heraldic terms, the coat of arms is described as follows: "Argent three Martlets Gules, on a chief dancette of the second, an open book proper garnished or bearing the legendIn Domino Confidoin letters Sable between two crowns of the first. Motto:Grandescunt Aucta Labore."The coat of arms consists of two parts, the shield and the scroll. The University publishes a guide to the use of the University's arms and motto.[99]

The University's symbol is themartlet,stemming from the presence of the mythical bird on the officialarmsof the University. The University's official colour is scarlet, which figures prominently in theacademic dress of McGill University.McGill's motto isGrandescunt Aucta Labore,Latinfor "By work, all things increase and grow" (literally, "Things grown great increase by work," that is, things that grow to be great do so by means of work). The officialschool songis entitled "Hail,Alma Mater."[100]

Exchange and study abroad

McGill maintains ties with more than 160 partner universities where students can study abroad for either one or two semesters.[101]Each year, McGill hosts around 500 incoming exchange students from over 32 countries. The University offers a multitude of activities and events to integrate students into the University's community. McGill is the home to more than 10,000 foreign students who make up of more than 27 per cent of the student population.[102]

Finances

The McGill endowment provides approximately 10 per cent of the school's annual operating revenues.[103]McGill's endowment rests within the top 10 per cent of all North American post-secondary institutions' endowments.[104]As of 2022, the endowment is valued at $2.039 billion,[105]thethird-largest endowment among Canadian universities,and remains one of the largest endowments on a per-student basis.[106]

McGill launched theCampaign McGillcampaign in October 2007,[107]with the goal of raising over $750 million for the purpose of further "attracting and retaining top talent in Quebec, to increase access to quality education and to further enhance McGill's ability to address critical global problems."[108]The largest goal of any Canadian University fundraising campaign at the time,[108][109]the campaign was officially closed on June 18, 2013, having raised more than $1 billion.[110][111]Campaign McGillhas since been surpassed by larger fundraising campaigns, such as theUniversity of British Columbia's $3 billionFORWARDcampaign and theUniversity of Toronto's $4 billionDefy Gravitycampaign.[112][113]In 2019, McGill launchedMade By McGill,a new $2 billion fundraising campaign.[114]

In 2019, McGill received a $200 million donation to fund the creation of the McCall MacBain Scholarships programme, the then-largest single philanthropic gift to a Canadian University, until it was surpassed in 2020 by a $250 million donation byJames and Louise Temertyto theUniversity of Toronto.[115][116]

Academics

Admissions

McGill University has an acceptance rate of 38.1 per cent and a graduate acceptance rate of 29.2 per cent, with an enrolment rate of 19 per cent of all applicants.[117][118][119]22 per cent of all students are enrolled in theFaculty of Arts,McGill's largest academic unit. Of the other larger faculties, theFaculty of Scienceenrols 15 per cent, theFaculty of Medicineenrols 13 per cent, the School of Continuing Studies enrols 12 per cent, theFaculty of Engineeringand theDesautels Faculty of Managementenrol about 10 per cent each.[16]The remainder of all students are enrolled in McGill's smaller schools, including theFaculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences,Faculty of Dentistry,Faculty of Medicine,Faculty of Education,Faculty of Law,Schulich School of Music,and theFaculty of Religious Studies.Since the 1880s,[120]McGill has been affiliated with threeTheological Colleges;theMontreal Diocesan Theological College(Anglican Church of Canada),The Presbyterian College, Montreal(Presbyterian Church in Canada), and United Theological College (United Church of Canada).[121]The University's Faculty of Religious Studies maintains additional affiliations with other theological institutions and organizations, such as theMontreal School of Theology.[122]

Undergraduate

Among Canadian universities, McGill undergraduates have the fifth highest average entering grades among high school andCEGEPstudents entering from their home province.[123]Among admitted students, the median Quebec CEGEPR-scorewas 31.9, while the median grade 12 averages for students entering McGill from outside of Quebec ranged between 93.2 per cent and 94.4 per cent (A). For American students, the medianSATscores in the verbal, mathematics, and writing sections were 730, 730, and 730, respectively. The medianACTscore was 32.[124]

Law

Due to its bilingual nature, McGill's law school does not require applicants to sit theLSAT,which is only offered in English. For students who submitted LSAT scores in the September 2019 entering class, the median LSAT score was 163 (87.8th percentile) out of a possible 180 points. Of those students who entered with a bachelor's degree, the median GPA was 86 per cent (3.8/4.0), and of those students entering from CEGEP, the average R-score was 34.29.[125]

Medicine

For medical students in the 2020 entering class, of those students who entered with a bachelor's degree, the average GPA was 3.88 out of 4.0, and of those students entering from CEGEP, the average R-score was 37.10.[126]McGill does not require applicants to its medical programme to sit theMCATif they have an undergraduate degree from a Canadian University.[127]

MBA

In the Desautels Faculty of Management's MBA program, applicants had an averageGMATscore of 670 and an average GPA of 3.3.[128]MBA students had an average age of 28, and five years of work experience. 95 per cent of MBA students are bilingual and 60 per cent are trilingual.[129]

Teaching and learning

In the 2007–2008 school year, McGill offered over 340 academic programs in eleven faculties.[130][131]The University also offers over 250 doctoral and master's graduate degree programs. Despite strong increases in University enrolment across North America,[132]McGill has upheld a student-faculty ratio of 16:1.[133][134]There are nearly 1,600tenuredor tenure-track professors teaching at the University.[135]

Tuition feesvary significantly depending on the faculties that aspiring (graduate and undergraduate) students choose as well as their citizenship. For the undergraduate faculty of the arts, tuition fees vary for in-province,out-of-province, and international students, with full-time Quebec students paying around $4,333.10[136]per year, Canadian students from other provinces paying around $9,509.30[136]per year, andinternationalstudents paying $22,102.57–$41,815.92 per year.[137]

Since 1996, McGill, in accordance with theQuebec Ministry of Education, Recreation and Sports(Ministère de l'Éducation, du Loisir et du Sport or MELS), has had eight categories that qualifies certain international students to be excused from paying international fees. These categories include: students fromFranceandFrench-speaking Belgium,a quota of students from select countries which have agreements with MELS, which includeAlgeria,China, andMorocco,[138]students holding diplomatic status, including theirdependents,and students enrolled in certain language programs leading to a degree in French.[139] In the 2008–2009 school year, McGill's graduate business program became funded by tuition. It was the last business school in Canada to do so.[140]

For out-of-province first year undergraduate students, a high school average of 95 per cent is required to receive a guaranteed one-year entrance scholarship.[141]For renewal of previously earned scholarships, students generally need to be within the top 10 per cent of their faculty.[142]For in-course scholarships in particular, students must be within the top 5 per cent of their faculty.[143][144]

The University has joined Project Hero, a scholarship program cofounded by General (Ret'd)Rick Hillierfor the families of fallenCanadian Forcesmembers.[145]McGill is also partnered with theSTEMinitiativeSchulich Leader Scholarships,awarding an $80,000 scholarship to an incoming engineering student and a $60,000 scholarship to a student pursuing a degree in science/technology/mathematics each year.[146]

Language policy

McGill is one of three English-language universities in Quebec;[147]French is not a requirement to attend.[148]The Faculty of Law does, however, require all students to be 'passively bilingual' since English or French may be used at any time.[149]The majority of students are fluent in at least two languages.[150]Francophone students, whether from Quebec or overseas, now make up approximately 20 per cent of the student body.[151]

Although the language of instruction is English, since its founding McGill has allowed students to write their thesis in French, and since 1964 students in all faculties have been able to submit any graded work in either English or French, provided the objective of the class is not to learn a particular language.[152]

In 1969, thenationalistMcGill françaismovement demanded McGill become francophone, pro-nationalist, and pro-worker.[153]The movement was led by Stanley Gray, apolitical scienceprofessor(and possibly unaware of government plans after the 1968 legislation founding theUniversité du Québec).[154][155]A demonstrationwas held of 10,000 trade unionists, leftist activists, CEGEP students, and even some McGill students, at the University'sRoddick Gateson March 28, 1969. Protesters saw English as the privileged language of commerce. McGill, whereFrancophoneswere only three per cent of the students, could be seen as the force maintaining economic control byAnglophonesof a predominantly French-speaking province.[156][157]However, the majority of students and faculty opposed such a position.[158][159]

Rankings and reputation

University rankings
World rankings
ARWUWorld[160]74
QSWorld[161]29
THEWorld[162]45
THEEmployability[163]29
USNWRWorld[164]56(tie)
Canadian rankings
ARWUNational[160]3
QSNational[161]2
THENational[162]3
USNWRNational[164]3
Maclean'sMedical/Doctoral[165]1

McGill ranks first in Canada among medical-doctoral universities inMaclean'sCanadian University Rankings 2023.[165]The University has held the top position in the ranking for 19 consecutive years.[166]The Globe and Mail's Canadian University Report 2019 categorized McGill as "above average" for its financial aid, student experience and research, and as "average" for its library resources.[167]Research Infosource ranked McGill second among Canadian universities with medical schools in its 2020 edition of Research Universities of the Year.[168]

Internationally, McGill ranked 30th in the world and second in Canada in the 2023QS World University Rankings.[161]It also ranked 26th in the world and second in Canada in the 2023CWUR World University Rankings.[169]It was ranked 49th in the world and third in Canada by the 2023Times Higher Education World University Rankings.[162]In 2022, theAcademic Ranking of World Universitiesranked the University 73rd in the world, and third in Canada.[160]In the 2022–23U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Rankings,McGill was ranked 54th in the world and third in Canada.[164]

In the Global University Employability Ranking 2022, published byTimes Higher Education,McGill ranked 29th in the world and second in Canada.[163]Natureranked McGill 67th in the world and second in Canada among academic institutions for high-impact research in the 2021 edition of Nature Index.[170]According to Wealth-X's 2019 ranking ofultra-high-net-worth(UHNW) alumni — those with US$30 million or more in net worth — McGill ranked 34th in the world and eighth outside the United States.[171]

McGill'sMBAprogram, offered by theDesautels Faculty of Management,has appeared in several rankings.Quacquarelli Symonds,in its Global MBA Rankings 2021, ranked McGill's MBA 59th in the world and second in Canada.[172]TheFinancial Times,in its 2020 Global MBA ranking, placed the MBA programme 91st in the world and second in Canada.[173]InBloomberg BusinessWeek's Best Business Schools ranking 2019–2020, Desautels was ranked seventh in Canada.[174]

McGill is a member of theGlobal University Leaders Forum(GULF),[175]composed of the presidents of 29 of the world's top universities.[176]It is the only Canadian University member of GULF.[15]McGill is also one of only two non-American universities to be a member of theAssociation of American Universities,an organization of research-intensive universities.[177]

Research

The laboratory of Rutherford, early 20th century

McGill is affiliated with 12Nobel Laureates,and professors have won major teaching prizes. According to theAssociation of Universities and Colleges of Canada,"researchers at McGill are affiliated with about 75 major research centres and networks, and are engaged in an extensive array of research partnerships with other universities, government and industry in Quebec and Canada, throughout North America and in dozens of other countries."[178]In 2016, McGill had over $547 million of sponsored research income, the second-highest in Canada,[179]and a research intensity per faculty of $317,600, the third highest among full-service universities in Canada.[180]McGill has one of the largest patent portfolios among Canadian universities.[181]McGill's researchers are supported by theMcGill University Library,which comprises 13 branch libraries and holds over 11.5 million items.[182]

Since 1926, McGill has been a member of theAssociation of American Universities(AAU), an organization of leading research universities in North America. McGill is a founding member ofUniversitas 21,an international network of leading research-intensive universities that work together to expand their global reach and advance their plans for internationalization. McGill is one of 26 members of theGlobal University Leaders Forum(GULF), which acts as an intellectual community within theWorld Economic Forumto advise its leadership on matters relating to higher education and research. It is the only Canadian University member of GULF. McGill is also a member of theU15,a group of prominent research universities within Canada.[183]

McGill-Queen's University Pressbegan as McGill in 1963 and amalgamated with Queen's in 1969. McGill-Queen's University Press focuses on Canadian studies and publishes the Canadian Public Administration Series.[184]

Radon, discovered at McGill by physicistErnest Rutherford

Sir William Osler,Wilder Penfield,Donald Hebb,Donald Ewen Cameron,Brenda Milner,and others made significant discoveries inmedicine,neuroscienceandpsychologywhile working at McGill, many at the University'sMontreal Neurological Institute.The first hormone governing the Immune System (later christened the Cytokine 'Interleukin-2') was discovered at McGill in 1965 by Gordon & McLean.[185]

The invention of the world's first artificial cell was made byThomas Changwhile an undergraduate student at the University.[186]While chair of physics at McGill, nuclear physicistErnest Rutherfordperformed the experiment that led to the discovery of the alpha particle and its function in radioactive decay, which won him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908.[187]AlumnusJack W. Szostakwas awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in medicine for discovering a key mechanism in the genetic operations of cells, an insight that has inspired new lines of research into cancer.[188]

Libraries, archives and museums

TheMcGill University Librarycomprises 12 branch libraries containing 11.5 million items in its collection.[189]Its branches include the Department of Rare Books & Special Collections, which holds about 350,000 items, including books, manuscripts, maps, prints, and a general rare book collection.[190]TheIslamic Studies Librarycontains over 125,000 volumes and a growing number of electronic resources covering the whole of Islamic civilization, including approximately 3,000 rare books and manuscripts.[191]TheOsler Library of the History of Medicineis the largest medical history library in Canada and one of the most comprehensive in the world.[192]

Elizabeth Wirth Music Building, also a library, sits adjacent to the old Strathcona Music Building.

The McGill University Archives – now administered as part of the McGill Library – consist of manuscripts, texts, photographs, audio-visual material, architectural records, cartographic materials, prints, drawings, microforms and artifacts.[193]In 1962 F. Cyril James declared that the newly founded McGill University Archives (MUA), while concentrating on the institutional records of McGill, had the mandate to acquire private papers of former faculty members. In the 1990s drew back their acquisition scope, and in 2004, new terms of reference on private acquisitions were introduced that included a wider McGill Community.[194]

TheRedpath Museumhouses collections of interest toethnology,biology,paleontology,mineralogyandgeology.Built in 1882, the Redpath is the oldest building in Canada built specifically to be a museum.[195]

The McGill Medical Museum catalogues, preserves, conserves and displays collections that document the study and practice of medicine at McGill University and its associated teaching hospitals. The Medical museum features collections, individual specimens, artifacts, equipment logbooks, autopsy journals, paper materials and medical instruments and apparatus, 25 wax models, 200 mostly skeletal dry specimens, and 400 lantern slides of anatomic specimens. There is a special emphasis on pathology; there are 2000 fluid-filled preserved anatomical and pathological specimens. TheOsler collection,for example, consists of 60 wet specimens, while The Abbott collection consists of 80 wet specimens, mostly examples of congenital cardiac disease.[196]

Student life

Student body

PhD candidates march at Commencement in McGill's distinctivescarletregalia.[197]

As of Fall 2021, McGill's student population includes 26,765undergraduateand 10,411graduate studentsrepresenting diverse geographic and linguistic backgrounds. Of the entire student population, 46.8 per cent are from Quebec and 22.8 per cent are from the rest of Canada, while 30.4 per cent are from outside of Canada. International students hail from about 150 countries,[198]with many students coming from the United States, China, and France.[199][200]Over half of McGill students claim a first language other than English, with 19.7 per cent of the students claiming French as their mother tongue and 33.5 per cent claiming a language other than English and French, compared to 46.8 per cent who claim English as their mother tongue.[201]In Fall 2021, 34,379 students were enrolled in full-time studies, while 4,888 students enrolled in part-time studies.[199]

Student organizations

The campus has an activestudents' societyrepresented by the undergraduate Students' Society of McGill University (SSMU) and the Post-Graduate Students' Society of McGill University (PGSS). Due to the large postdoctoral student population, the PGSS also contains a semi-autonomous Association of Postdoctoral Fellows (APF). In addition, each faculty and department has its own student governing body, the largest faculty associations being the Arts Undergraduate Society (AUS) and the Science Undergraduate Society (SUS).[202][203]The oldest is the Medical Students Society, founded in 1859.[204]

SSMU supports more than 250 student-run membership clubs, which range from athletics, health and wellness, arts, and culture groups to professional development, charitable, volunteer, and political associations. It offers 17 student-run services, which provide services and resources to students regardless of membership, such as the Flat Bike Collective, Black Students' Network, McGill Students'Nightline,and Queer McGill (formerly Gay McGill),[205]which has supportedqueerstudents since 1972.[206][207]SSMU is also affiliated with 11 independent student groups, which operate on campus but are outside of the student society's governance structure. These independent groups include student media outlets, alegal clinic,AIESECMcGill, and the International Relations Students' Association of McGill (IRSAM),[208]which publishes the world's only all-inclusive international relations research journal, theMcGill International Review,[209]and has consultative status with the UNEconomic and Social Counciland theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[210]IRSAM has hosted the McGillModel United Nationsfor University students since 1990 and the Secondary Schools United Nations Symposium since 1993.[211]

Many student clubs are centred around McGill's student union building, the University Centre. In 1992, students held areferendumcalling for the University Centre to be renamed for actor and McGill alumnusWilliam Shatner.[212]The University administration refused to accept the name and did not attend the opening because it traditionally names buildings in honour of deceased community members or majorbenefactors—Shatner is neither. Nevertheless, the University Centre has been informally referred to as the Shatner Building ever since.[213][214]

Student media

McGill has a number of student-run publications.The McGill Daily,first published in 1911, was previously published twice weekly,[215]but shifted to a once-a-week publication schedule in September 2013 due to tightened budgets.[216]TheDélit françaisis theDaily's French-language counterpart. The combined circulation of both papers is over 28,000.[215]TheMcGill Tribunecurrently publishes once a week, circulating approximately 11,000 copies across campus.The Bull & Bear,operating under the Management Undergraduate Society, publishes 1,000 copies each month.[217]CKUT(90.3 FM) is the campus radio station.TVMcGillis the University TV station, broadcasting on closed-circuit television and over the internet.[218]

TheMcGill University Faculty of Lawis home to three student-run academic journals, including theMcGill Law Journal,founded in 1952.[219]

Opening of the Student Union building, 1906

Greek life

TheGreek systemat McGill consists of several fraternities and sororities. Canada's only national fraternity, Phi Kappa Pi, was founded at McGill and the University of Toronto in 1913 and continues to be active. McGill was also chosen as the first University to expand to outside of the United States for several Greek letter organizations, for instance, with the Québec Alpha chapter of Phi Delta Theta in 1902.[220]The Greek letter organizations at McGill are governed by the Inter-Greek Letter Council, the school's second-largest student group.[221]Over 500 students or approximately 2 per cent of the student population are in sororities and fraternities at McGill, on a par with most Canadian schools but below the average for American universities.[222][223]

Athletics

Main article:McGill Redbirds and Martlets
McGill Athletics logo
Percival Molson Memorial Stadium
A hockey game on campus in 1884, just seven years after McGill students wrote the then-new game's first rule book, with the Arts Building, Redpath Museum, and Morrice Hall, then the Presbyterian College,) visible

McGill is represented inU Sportsby theMcGill Redbirds and Martletswith the Redbirds representing men's teams and the Martlets representing women's teams. McGill is currently home to 28 varsity teams. McGill is known for its strong baseball, hockey and lacrosse programs.[224][225]McGill's unique mascot, Marty theMartlet,was introduced during the 2005 Homecoming game.[226]

The downtown McGill campus sport and exercise facilities include: the McGill Sports Centre (which includes the Tomlinson Fieldhouse and the Windsor Varsity Clinic),[227]Molson Stadium,Memorial Pool, Tomlinson Hall, McConnell Arena, Forbes Field, many outdoortennis courtsand otherextra-curriculararenasand faculties.[228]

The Macdonald Campus facilities include an arena, a gymnasium, apool,tennis courts,fitness centresand hundreds of acres of green space for regular use.[229]The University's largest sporting venue, Molson Stadium, was constructed in 1914. Following an expansion project completed in 2010, it now seats just over 25,000,[230]and is the current home field of theMontreal Alouettes.[231]

Athletic history

In 1868, the first recorded game ofrugbyin North America occurred in Montreal, between British army officers and McGill students,[232][233]giving McGill the oldest University-affiliated rugby club in North America. Other McGill-originated sports evolved out of rugby rules: football, hockey, and basketball. The first game of North Americanfootballwas played between McGill andHarvardon May 14, 1874,[234]leading to the spread of American football throughout theIvy League.[235]

On March 3, 1875, thefirst organized indoorhockeygame was played at Montreal'sVictoria Skating Rinkbetween two nine-player teams, includingJames Creightonand several McGill University students. TheMcGill University Hockey Club,the first organized hockey club, was founded in 1877[236]and played its first game on January 31, 1877.[237]Very soon thereafter, those McGill students wrote the first hockey rule book. A McGill team was one of four that competed in theAmateur Hockey Association of Canada,founded in 1886. AHAC teams competed for the firstStanley Cupin 1893; the AHAC became one of predecessor organizations of theNational Hockey League.[238]McGill alumnusJames Naismithinvented basketball in early December 1891.[239]

There has been a McGill alumnus or alumna competing at every Olympic Games since 1908.[240][241][242]SwimmerGeorge Hodgsonwon two gold medals at the1912 Summer Olympics,ice hockey goaltenderKim St-Pierrewon gold medals at the2002 Winter Olympicsand at the2006 Winter Olympics.Other 2006 gold medalists areJennifer Heil(women's freestyle mogul) and goaltenderCharline Labonté(women's ice hockey).

McGill Hockey Team, 1904

A 2005hazingscandal forced the cancellation of the final two games in the McGill Redmen football season.[243][244]

In 2006, McGill's Senate approved a proposed anti-hazing policy to define forbidden initiation practices.[245]

In 2018, after a slew of protests—both online and on-campus—an online vote revealed that 78.8 per cent of the McGill student population were in favour of changing the varsity teams' "Redmen" name, with 21 per cent against.[246]The University's nickname emerged in the 1920s. In the 1950s, both men's and women's teams came to be nicknamed the "Indians" and "Squaws", and some teams later adopted a logo of an indigenous man wearing a headdress in the 1980s and '90s. In December 2018, McGill University released a working group report that revealed deep divisions between students and alumni who defend the nearly century-old name and those who feel it is derogatory to indigenous students. In January 2019, it was announced that the principal Suzanne Fortier would decide whether or not to change the name by the end of the 2019 academic term.[247]

In 2019, an announcement confirmed that the Redmen name for its men's varsity sports teams had been dropped. No new name was planned; the groups would be known as the McGill teams. However, in 2020 McGill University revealed that the varsity men's sports teams would be known as the "Redbirds".The name carries historical links to several McGill sports clubs, teams, and events.[248]The former name would remain in the McGill Sports Hall of Fame and on items such as existing plaques, trophies and championship photos.[249]

Rivalries

McGill maintains an academic and athletic rivalry withQueen's UniversityinKingston, Ontario.Competition between rowing athletes at the two schools has inspired an annual boat race between the two universities in the spring of each year since 1997, inspired by the famousOxford-Cambridge Boat Race.[250]The football rivalry, which started in 1884, ended after Canadian University athletic divisions were re-organized in 2000; the Ontario-Quebec Intercollegiate Football Conference was divided intoOntario University AthleticsandQuebec Student Sports Federation.[251]The rivalry returned in 2002 when it transferred to the annual home-and-home hockey games between the two institutions. Queen's students refer to these matches as "Kill McGill" games, and usually show up in Montreal in atypically large numbers to cheer on theQueen's Golden Gaelshockey team.[252]In 2007, McGill students arrived in bus-loads to cheer on theMcGill Redmen,occupying a third of Queen's Jock Harty Arena.[253]

The school also competes in the annual "Old Four (IV)" soccer tournament, withQueen's University,theUniversity of Torontoand theUniversity of Western Ontario.[254]

McGill andHarvardare also athletic rivals, as demonstrated by the biennial Harvard-McGill rugby games, alternately played in Montreal and Cambridge.[255]

  • The Queen's-McGill Challenge Blade
    The Queen's-McGill Challenge Blade
  • The Lorne Gales Trophy
    The Lorne Gales Trophy

Notable people

For a more comprehensive list, seeList of McGill University people.

McGill alumni have played pivotal roles in the founding of several institutions of higher education. These include the first President of theUniversity of British Columbia(UBC)Frank Wesbrook,[256]the former President of UBC and current President of theUniversity of MichiganSanta J. Ono,the co-founder of theJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineWilliam Osler,[257]and the first President of theUniversity of AlbertaHenry Marshall Tory.[258]More recent academic leaders include pro chancellor ofKhaja Bandanawaz UniversitySyed Muhammad Ali Al Hussaini,President ofPrinceton UniversityHarold Tafler Shapiro,[259]President ofStanford UniversityMarc Trevor Tessier-Lavigne,[260]and Vice-Chancellor of theUniversity of CambridgeStephen Toope.[261]

In the arts, McGill students include fourPulitzer Prizewinners,[note 4]TempletonandBerggruenPrize winnerCharles Taylor,[262]essayist and novelistJohn Ralston Saul,and Emmy Award-winning actorWilliam Shatner.

In the sciences, McGill graduates and faculty have received a total of 12 Nobel Prizes in disciplines ranging from Physiology, Medicine, Economics, Chemistry and Physics. McGill has also produced five astronauts out of 14 total selected in theCSA's history.[263]Other prominent science alumni include the inventor of theartificial cellThomas Chang,[264]inventor of theinternet search engineAlan Emtage,[265]inventor of the explosives vapour detector (EVD-1)Lorne Elias,[266]andTuring AwardwinnerYoshua Bengio.[267]

In law and politics, McGill alumni include threePrime Ministers of Canada(John Abbott,[268]Wilfrid Laurier[269]andJustin Trudeau[270]), oneGovernor General of Canada(Julie Payette[271]). A number of foreign leaders have graduated from McGill includingPresident of Costa RicaDaniel Oduber Quirós,[272]President of LatviaVaira Vīķe-Freiberga,[273]Prime Minister of EgyptAhmed Nazif.[274]John Peters Humphrey,law professor and director of theUnited NationsDivision on Human Rights, wrote with Eleanor Roosevelt theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.[275]

In sport, McGill students and alumni include 121Olympianswho have won 35 Olympic medals.[21]Other notable sporting alumni include the inventor ofbasketballJames Naismith,[276]influentialbaseball statisticianAllan Roth,[277]the first medical doctor to win aSuper BowlLaurent Duvernay-Tardif,[278]andTriple Gold ClubmemberMike Babcock.[279]

See also

Notes

  1. ^McGill alumni who have receivedAcademy AwardsincludeTorill Kove,Kate Biscoe,Richard King,Demetri Terzopoulos,Edward Saxon,Jake Eberts,John Weldon,Beverly Shaffer,andBurt Bacharach.
  2. ^McGill alumni who have receivedGrammy AwardsincludeGeorge Massenburg,Estelí Gomez,Şerban Ghenea,Steven Epstein,Jennifer Gasoi,Brian Losch,Chilly Gonzales,Win Butler,Nick Squire,Leonard Cohen,Richard King,Régine Chassagne,andBurt Bacharach.
  3. ^McGill alumni who have receivedEmmy AwardsincludeHume Cronyn,Eva Lipman,Mila Aung-Thwin,Alex Herschlag,Amy Schatz,Billy Wisse,Robby Hoffman,Kate Biscoe,Simcha Jacobovici,Roberto Hernández, Blake Sifton,Kevin Mambo,andWilliam Shatner.
  4. ^abThese areLeon Edel(1963),Charles Krauthammer(1987),John F. Burns(1993, 1997[19]) andMatthew Rosenberg(2018).[20]

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