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Physician
The Doctor,an 1891 portrait byLuke Fildes[1]
Occupation
NamesPhysician, medical practitioner, medical doctor or simplydoctor
Occupation type
Professional
Activity sectors
Medicine,health care
Description
CompetenciesTheethics,artand science ofmedicine,analytical skills,andcritical thinking
Education required
MBBS,MD,DO,orMDCM
Fields of
employment
Clinics,hospitals
Related jobs
General practitioner
Family physician
Surgeon
Specialist physician

Aphysician,medical practitioner(British English),medical doctor,or simplydoctoris ahealth professionalwho practicesmedicine,which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoringhealththrough thestudy,diagnosis,prognosisandtreatmentofdisease,injury,and other physical and mental impairments. Physicians may focus their practice on certain disease categories, types of patients, and methods of treatment—known asspecialities—or they may assume responsibility for the provision of continuing and comprehensive medical care to individuals, families, and communities—known asgeneral practice.[2]Medical practice properly requires both a detailedknowledgeof theacademic disciplines,such asanatomyandphysiology,underlying diseases,and their treatment, which is thescienceof medicine, and a decentcompetencein its applied practice, which is the art orcraftof the profession.

Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are some common elements, such asmedical ethicsrequiring that physicians show consideration, compassion, and benevolence for theirpatients.

Modern meanings

Francesco Redi,considered to be the founder of experimental biology, was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many importantparasites.[3]

Specialist in internal medicine

Main article:Internal medicine

Around the world, the term physician refers to aspecialistininternal medicineor one of its many sub-specialties (especially as opposed to a specialist insurgery). This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications, rather than by the procedures ofsurgeons.[4]

This term is at least nine hundred years old in English: physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. TheShorter Oxford English Dictionary,third edition, gives aMiddle Englishquotation making this contrast, from as early as 1400: "O Lord, whi is it so greet difference betwixe a cirugian and a physician."[5]

Henry VIIIgranted a charter to the LondonRoyal College of Physiciansin 1518. It was not until 1540 that he granted theCompany of Barber-Surgeons(ancestor of theRoyal College of Surgeons) its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established theRegius Professorship of Physicat theUniversity of Cambridge.[6]Newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor ofinternal medicine.Hence, in the 16th century,physicmeant roughly what internal medicine does now.

Currently, a specialistphysician in the United Statesmay be described as aninternist.Another term,hospitalist,was introduced in 1996,[7]to describe US specialists ininternal medicinewho work largely or exclusively in hospitals. Such 'hospitalists' now make up about 19% of all USgeneral internists,[8]who are often calledgeneral physiciansinCommonwealthcountries.

This original use, as distinct from surgeon, is common in most of the world including theUnited Kingdomand other Commonwealth countries (such asAustralia,Bangladesh,India,New Zealand,Pakistan,South Africa,Sri Lanka,andZimbabwe), as well as in places as diverse asBrazil,Hong Kong,Indonesia,Japan,Ireland,andTaiwan.In such places, the more general English termsdoctorormedical practitionerare prevalent, describing any practitioner of medicine (whom an American would likely call a physician, in the broad sense).[9]In Commonwealth countries, specialistpediatriciansandgeriatriciansare also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than byorgansystem.

Physician and surgeon

Further information:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of SurgeryandDoctor of Medicine

Around the world, the combined term "physician and surgeon" is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty.[4][5]This usage still shows the original meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner ofphysic,and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States, and by equivalent bodies in Canadian provinces, to describe any medical practitioner.

North America

Further information:Physicians in the United StatesandPhysicians in Canada
Elizabeth Blackwell,the first female physician in the United States, graduated fromSUNY Upstate.

In modern English, the termphysicianis used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing. These meanings and variations are explained below.

In the United States and Canada, the termphysiciandescribes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree. TheAmerican Medical Association,established in 1847, as well as theAmerican Osteopathic Association,founded in 1897, both currently use the termphysicianto describe members. However, theAmerican College of Physicians,established in 1915, does not: its title usesphysicianin its original sense.

American physicians

The vast majority ofphysicians trained in the United Stateshave aDoctor of Medicinedegree, and use the initials M.D. A smaller number attendosteopathicmedical schoolsand have aDoctor of Osteopathic Medicinedegree and use the initialsD.O.[10]TheWorld Directory of Medical Schoolslists both MD and DO granting schools asmedical schoolslocated in the United States. After completion ofmedical school,physicians complete aresidencyin the specialty in which they will practice. Subspecialties require the completion of afellowshipafter residency. Both MD and DO physicians participate in theNational Resident Matching Program(NRMP) and attendACGME-accredited residencies and fellowships across all medicalspecialtiesto obtain licensure.

All boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years.

Primary care

Primary care physiciansguide patients in preventing disease and detecting health problems early while they are still treatable.[11]They are divided into two types:family medicinedoctors andinternal medicinedoctors.[12]Family doctors, or family physicians, are trained to care for patients of any age, while internists are trained to care for adults.[13]Family doctors receive training in a variety of care and are therefore also referred to asgeneral practitioners.[14]Family medicine grew out of the general practitioner movement of the 1960s in response to the growing specialization in medicine that was seen as threatening to the doctor-patient relationship and continuity of care.[15]

Podiatry

In the United States, theAmerican Podiatric Medical Association(APMA) definespodiatristsas physicians and surgeons who treat the foot, ankle, and associated structures of the leg.[16]Podiatrists undergo training with theDoctor of Podiatric Medicine(DPM) degree.[17]TheAmerican Medical Association(AMA), however, advocates for the definition of aphysicianas "an individual possessing degree of either aDoctor of MedicineorDoctor of Osteopathic Medicine."[18]In the US, podiatrists are required to complete three to four years of podiatry residency upon graduating with a DPM degree. After residency, one to two years of fellowship programs are available in plastic surgery, foot and ankle reconstructive surgery, sports medicine, and wound care.[19]

Podiatry residencies and/ or fellowships are not accredited by theACGME.The overall scope of podiatric practice varies from state to state and is not similar to that of physicians holding an MD or DO degree.[20]DPM is also available at one Canadian university, namely theUniversité du Québec à Trois-Rivières;students are typically required to complete an internship in New York prior to obtaining their professional degree. TheWorld Directory of Medical Schoolsdoes not list US or Canadian schools of podiatric medicine asmedical schoolsand only lists US-granted MD, DO, and Canadian MD programs as medical schools for the respective regions.

Shortage

Main article:Physician supply
Medical doctors per 1,000 people as of 2018[21]

Many countries in the developing world have the problem of too few physicians. In 2015, theAssociation of American Medical Collegeswarned that the US will face a doctor shortage of as many as 90,000 by 2025.[22]

Social role and world view

Main articles:Medical anthropologyandHistory of medicine

Biomedicine

WithinWestern cultureand over recent centuries, medicine has become increasingly based on scientificreductionismandmaterialism.This style of medicine is now dominant throughout the industrialized world, and is often termedbiomedicinebymedical anthropologists.[23]Biomedicine "formulates the human body and disease in a culturally distinctive pattern",[24]and is aworld viewlearnt by medical students. Within this tradition, themedical modelis a term for the complete "set of procedures in which all doctors are trained",[25]including mental attitudes. A particularly clear expression of this world view, currently dominant among conventional physicians, isevidence-based medicine.Within conventional medicine, most physicians still pay heed to their ancient traditions:

The critical sense and sceptical attitude of the citation of medicine from the shackles of priestcraft and of caste;secondly,the conception of medicine as an art based on accurate observation, and as a science, an integral part of the science of man and of nature;thirdly,the high moral ideals, expressed in that most "memorable of human documents" (Gomperz), theHippocratic oath;andfourthly,the conception and realization of medicine as the profession of a cultivated gentleman.

—Sir William Osler,Chauvanism in Medicine(1902)[26]

In this Western tradition, physicians are considered to be members of a learnedprofession,and enjoy highsocial status,often combined with expectations of a high and stable income andjob security.However, medical practitioners often work long and inflexible hours, with shifts at unsociable times. Their high status is partly from their extensive training requirements, and also because of their occupation's specialethicalandlegalduties. The term traditionally used by physicians to describe a person seeking their help is the wordpatient(although one whovisitsa physician for a routinecheck-upmay also be so described). This wordpatientis an ancient reminder of medical duty, as it originally meant 'one who suffers'. The English noun comes from theLatinwordpatiens,thepresent participleof thedeponent verb,patior,meaning 'I am suffering', and akin to theGreekverbπάσχειν(romanized:paschein,lit.to suffer) and its cognate nounπάθος(pathos,suffering).[5][27]

Physicians in the original, narrow sense (specialist physicians or internists, see above) are commonly members or fellows of professional organizations, such as theAmerican College of Physiciansor theRoyal College of Physiciansin the United Kingdom, and such hard-won membership is itself a mark of status.[citation needed]

Alternative medicine

While contemporary biomedicine has distanced itself from its ancient roots in religion and magic, many forms oftraditional medicine[28]andalternative medicinecontinue to espousevitalismin various guises: "As long as life had its own secret properties, it was possible to have sciences and medicines based on those properties".[29]The USNational Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine(NCCAM) classifiescomplementary and alternative medicinetherapies into five categories or domains, including:[30]alternative medical systems, or complete systems of therapy and practice;mind-bodyinterventions, or techniques designed to facilitate the mind's effect on bodily functions and symptoms; biologically based systems includingherbalism;and manipulative and body-based methods such aschiropracticand massage therapy.

In considering these alternate traditions that differ from biomedicine (see above),medical anthropologistsemphasize that all ways of thinking about health and disease have a significant cultural content, including conventional western medicine.[23][24][31][32]

Ayurveda,Unani medicine,andhomeopathyare popular types of alternative medicine.

Physicians' own health

Some commentators have argued that physicians have duties to serve as role models for the general public in matters of health, for example by not smoking cigarettes.[33]Indeed, in most western nations relatively few physicians smoke, and their professional knowledge does appear to have a beneficial effect on their health and lifestyle. According to a study of male physicians,[34]life expectancyis slightly higher for physicians (73 years for white and 69 years for black) than lawyers or many other highly educated professionals. Causes of death which are less likely to occur in physicians than the general population include respiratory disease (includingpneumonia,pneumoconioses,COPD,but excludingemphysemaand otherchronic airway obstruction), alcohol-related deaths,rectosigmoidandanal cancers,and bacterial diseases.[34]

Physicians do experience exposure tooccupational hazards,and there is a well-known aphorism that "doctors make the worst patients".[35]Causes of death that are shown to be higher in the physician population includesuicide among doctorsandself-inflicted injury,drug-related causes, traffic accidents, and cerebrovascular and ischaemic heart disease.[34]Physicians are also prone tooccupational burnout.This manifests as a long-term stress reaction characterized by poorer quality of care towards patients, emotional exhaustion, a feeling of decreased personal achievement, and others. A study by theAgency for Healthcare Research and Qualityreported that time pressure was the greatest cause of burnout; a survey from theAmerican Medical Associationreported that more than half of all respondents chose "too many bureaucratic tasks" as the leading cause of burnout.[36][37]

Education and training

Main article:Medical education
Jackson Memorial HospitalinMiami,the primary teaching hospital for theMiller School of Medicineat theUniversity of Miami

Medical education and career pathways for doctors vary considerably across the world.

All medical practitioners

In all developed countries, entry-level medical education programs aretertiary-levelcourses,undertaken at amedical schoolattached to auniversity.Depending on jurisdiction and university, entry may follow directly fromsecondary schoolor require pre-requisiteundergraduate education.The former commonly takes five or six years to complete. Programs that require previous undergraduate education (typically a three- or four-year degree, often in science) are usually four or five years in length. Hence, gaining a basic medical degree may typically take from five to eight years, depending on jurisdiction and university.

Following the completion of entry-level training, newly graduated medical practitioners are often required to undertake a period of supervised practice before full registration is granted, typically one or two years. This may be referred to as an "internship",as the" foundation "years in the UK, or as" conditional registration ". Some jurisdictions, including the United States, require residencies for practice.

Medical practitioners hold a medical degree specific to the university from which they graduated. This degree qualifies the medical practitioner to becomelicensedor registered under the laws of that particular country, and sometimes of several countries, subject to requirements for an internship or conditional registration.

Specialists in internal medicine

Specialty training is begun immediately following completion of entry-level training, or even before. In other jurisdictions, junior medical doctors must undertake generalist (un-streamed) training for one or more years before commencing specialization. Hence, depending on the jurisdiction, a specialist physician (internist) often does not achieve recognition as a specialist until twelve or more years after commencing basic medical training—five to eight years at university to obtain a basic medical qualification, and up to another nine years to become a specialist.

Regulation

In most jurisdictions, physicians (in either sense of the word) need government permission to practice. Such permission is intended to promote public safety, and often to protect government spending, as medical care is commonly subsidized by national governments.

In some jurisdictions such as inSingapore,it is common for physicians to inflate their qualifications with the title "Dr" in correspondence or namecards, even if their qualifications are limited to a basic (e.g., bachelor level) degree. In other countries such asGermany,only physicians holding an academic doctorate may call themselves doctor – on the other hand, theEuropean Research Councilhas decided that the German medical doctorate does not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.[dubious–discuss][38][39]

All medical practitioners

Among the English-speaking countries, this process is known either aslicensureas in the United States, or asregistrationin theUnited Kingdom,otherCommonwealthcountries, andIreland.Synonyms in use elsewhere includecolegiacióninSpain,ishi menkyoinJapan,autorisasjoninNorway,ApprobationinGermany,andάδεια εργασίαςin Greece. InFrance,ItalyandPortugal,civilian physicians must be members of the Order of Physicians to practice medicine.

In some countries, including the United Kingdom and Ireland, the profession largely regulates itself, with the government affirming the regulating body's authority. The best-known example of this is probably theGeneral Medical Councilof Britain. In all countries, the regulating authorities will revoke permission to practice in cases ofmalpracticeor serious misconduct.

In the large English-speaking federations (United States,Canada,Australia), the licensing or registration of medical practitioners is done at a state or provincial level, or nationally as in New Zealand. Australian states usually have a "Medical Board", which has now been replaced by theAustralian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency(AHPRA) in most states, while Canadian provinces usually have a "College of Physicians and Surgeons". All American states have an agency that is usually called the "Medical Board", although there are alternate names such as "Board of Medicine", "Board of Medical Examiners", "Board of Medical Licensure", "Board of Healing Arts" or some other variation.[40]After graduating from a first-professional school, physicians who wish to practice in the US usually take standardized exams, such as theUSMLEfor a Doctor in Medicine.

Specialists in internal medicine

Most countries have some method of officially recognizing specialist qualifications in all branches of medicine, including internal medicine. Sometimes, this aims to promote public safety by restricting the use of hazardous treatments. Other reasons for regulating specialists may include standardization of recognition for hospital employment and restriction on which practitioners are entitled to receive higher insurance payments for specialist services.

Performance and professionalism supervision

The issue ofmedical errors,drug abuse, and other issues in physician professional behavior received significant attention across the world,[41]in particular following a critical 2000 report[42]which "arguably launched" the patient-safety movement.[43]In the US, as of 2006 there were few organizations that systematically monitored performance. In the US, only theDepartment of Veterans Affairsrandomly drug tests physicians, in contrast to drug testing practices for other professions that have a major impact on public welfare. Licensing boards at the US state-level depend upon continuing education to maintain competence.[44]Through the utilization of theNational Practitioner Data Bank,Federation of State Medical Boards' disciplinary report, and American Medical Association Physician Profile Service, the 67 State Medical Boards continually self-report any adverse/disciplinary actions taken against a licensed physician in order that the other Medical Boards in which the physician holds or is applying for a medical license will be properly notified so that corrective, reciprocal action can be taken against the offending physician.[45]In Europe, as of 2009 the health systems are governed according to various national laws, and can also vary according to regional differences similar to the United States.[46]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Bell, Whitfield J. "Medical practice in colonial America".Bulletin of the History of Medicine31.5 (1957): 442–453.JSTOR44449174.
  • Hamilton, Bernice. "The Medical Professions in the Eighteenth Century".Economic History Review4#2 1951, pp. 141–169.JSTOR2599120.In Britain
  • Holloway, Sydney WF. "Medical education in England, 1830–1858: A sociological analysis".History49.167 (1964): 299–324.JSTOR24404427.
  • Keevil, John Joyce.Medicine and the Navy, 1200–1900(4 vol.; E. & S. Livingstone, 1957) on Royal Navy
  • Porter, Roy.Disease, Medicine and Society in England, 1550–1860(Cambridge University Press, 1995).

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related toPhysician.
  • Media related toPhysiciansat Wikimedia Commons
  • The dictionary definition ofphysicianat Wiktionary
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