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Mencius

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This article is about the ancient Chinese philosopher. For the book, seeMencius (book).
Mencius
Mạnh tử
As depicted in the albumHalf Portraits of the Great Sage and Virtuous Men of Old(Chí thánh tiên hiền bán thân tượng), housed in theNational Palace Museum
Born
Mèng Kē
Mạnh kha

12 March 372 BC[1]
State of Zou,Zhou dynasty(present-dayZoucheng,Shandong)
Died21 December 290 BC[1](aged 82–83)
State of Zou,Zhou dynasty
EraAncient philosophy
RegionChinese philosophy
SchoolConfucianism
Main interests
Ethics,social philosophy,political philosophy
Notable ideas
Mencius
"Mencius" inseal script(top) andregular(bottom) Chinese characters
ChineseMạnh tử
Hanyu PinyinMèngzǐ
Literal meaning"Master Meng"
Ancestral name: Ji(Chinese:Cơ;pinyin:Jī)
Clan name: Meng(Mạnh;Mèng)[a]
Given name: Ke (simplified Chinese:Kha;traditional Chinese:Kha;pinyin:Kē)
Courtesy name: Unknown[b]
Posthumous name: Master Meng the Second Sage[c](simplified Chinese:Á thánh mạnh tử;traditional Chinese:Á thánh mạnh tử;pinyin:Yàshèng Mèngzǐ)
Styled: Master Meng (Mạnh tử;Mèngzǐ)
Part ofa serieson
Confucianism
天將以夫子爲木鐸, "Heaven will instruct the master like a wooden-clapper bell (to awaken everyone to the Way)" — Analects 3.24.
Early history
Spring and Autumn period
Warring States period
Western Han
Fundamental concepts
Sangang Wuchang
Schools
Hermeneutic schools
Confucianism by country
Confucian texts
Five Classics
Four Books
Other texts
Organization
Confucian churchesand sects
In thisChinese name,thefamily nameisMeng.

Mencius(/ˈmɛnʃiəs/MEN-shee-əs);[2]bornMeng Ke(Chinese:Mạnh kha); orMengzi(Chinese:Mạnh tử;12 March 372 BC– 21 December 290 BC) was a ChineseConfucianphilosopherwho has often been described as the "second Sage" (Á thánh), that is, second toConfuciushimself. He is part of Confucius' fourth generation of disciples. Mencius inherited Confucius' ideology and developed it further.[3][4]Living during theWarring States period,he is said to have spent much of his life travelling around the states offering counsel to different rulers. Conversations with these rulers form the basis of theMencius,which would later be canonised as a Confucianclassic.

One primary principle of his work is that human nature is righteous and humane. The responses of citizens to the policies of rulers embodies this principle, and a state with righteous and humane policies will flourish by nature. The citizens, with freedom from good rule, will then allocate time to caring for their wives, brothers, elders, and children, and be educated with rites and naturally become better citizens. This placed him at odds with his near contemporary,Xunzi,who believed that human nature is evil by birth.[5]

Life[edit]

An image of Mencius in the sanctuary of the Mencius Temple, Zoucheng

Mencius, also known by his birth nameMeng Ke(Mạnh kha), was born in theState of Zou.His birthplace is now within thecounty-level cityofZoucheng,ShandongProvince.

He was an itinerantChinese philosopherand sage, and one of the principal interpreters ofConfucianism.Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius's grandson,Zisi.Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled throughout China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform.[6]During theWarring States period(403–221 BC), Mencius served as an official and scholar at theJixia Academyin theState of Qi(1046 BC to 221 BC) from 319 to 312 BC. He expressed hisfilial pietywhen he took three years leave of absence from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.[7]

Mencius was buried in theCemetery of Mencius(Mạnh tử lâm,Mengzi Lin,also known asÁ thánh lâm,Yasheng Lin), which is located 12 km to the northeast of Zoucheng's central urban area. Astelecarried by a giantstone tortoiseand crowned with dragons stands in front of his grave.[8]

Mother[edit]

Mencius's mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional Chinesefour-character idiomsisMạnh mẫu tam thiên(pinyin:mèngmǔ-sānqiān;lit.'Mencius's mother moves three times'); this saying refers to the legend that Mencius's mother moved houses three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children.

Mencius's father Meng Ji (Mạnh kích) died when Mencius was very young. His mother Zhǎng (Chưởng) orMeng Mu(Mạnh mẫu)[clarification needed]raised her son alone. They were very poor. At first they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore, the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There the boy began to imitate the cries ofbutchers.So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar.

Another story further illustrates the emphasis that Mencius's mother placed on her son's education. As the story goes, once when Mencius was young, he was a truant. His mother responded to his apparent disregard for his education by taking up a pair of scissors and cutting the cloth she had been weaving in front of him. This was intended to illustrate that one cannot stop a task midway, and her example inspired Mencius to be diligent in his studies.

There is another legend about his mother and his wife, involving a time when his wife was at home alone and was discovered by Mencius not to be sitting properly. Mencius thought his wife had violated a rite, and demanded a divorce. His mother claimed that it was written inThe Book of Ritesthat before a person entered a room, he should announce his imminent presence loudly to let others prepare for his arrival; as he had not done that in this case, the person who had violated the rite was Mencius himself. Eventually Mencius admitted his fault.

She is one of 125 women of which biographies have been included in theBiographies of Exemplary Women,written byLiu Xiang.

Lineage[edit]

Duke Huan of Lu's son through Qingfu (Khánh phụ) was an ancestor of Mencius. He was descended from Duke Yang of theState of Lu(Lỗ dương công). Duke Yang was the son ofBo Qin,who was the son of theDuke of Zhouof theZhou dynastyroyal family. The genealogy is found in the Mencius family tree (Mạnh tử thế gia đại tông thế hệ).[9][10][11]

Mencius's descendants lived inZouchengin the Mencius Family Mansion, where the Mencius Temple was also built and also a cemetery for Mencius's descendants.

Meng HaoranandMeng Jiaowere descendants of Mencius who lived during theTang dynasty.

During theMing dynasty,one of Mencius's descendants was given a hereditary title at theHanlin Academyby the Emperor. The title they held was Wujing Boshi (Doctor of the five classics, ngũ kinh bác sĩ;Ngũ kinh bác sĩ;Wǔjīng Bóshì).[12][13][14]In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen (Mạnh hi văn) 56th generation[15][16][17][18][19]andYan Hui-Yan Xihui (Nhan hi huệ) 59th generation, the same was bestowed on the offspring ofZhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian (Chu miện) 12th generation, the twoCheng brothers(Cheng HaoandCheng Yi-Chen Keren (Trình khắc nhân) 17th generation),Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting (Chu 梴) 9th generation, in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded toZeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui (Tằng chất túy) 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.[20]

One of Mencius's direct descendants was Meng Chih (Anglicised as Paul Chih Meng) former director of China House, and director of the China Institute in 1944.Timemagazine reported Meng's age that year as 44. Meng died in Arizona in 1990 at the age of 90.[21]North Carolina'sDavidson CollegeandColumbia Universitywere his alma mater. He was attending a speech along with Confucius descendantH. H. Kung.[22]

In theRepublic of Chinathere is an office called the "Sacrificial Official to Mencius" which is held by a descendant of Mencius, like the post of "Sacrificial Official to Zengzi" for a descendant ofZengzi,"Sacrificial Official to Yan Hui" for a descendant ofYan Hui,and the post of "Sacrificial Official to Confucius,held by a descendant of Confucius.[23][24][25]

The descendants of Mencius still usegeneration poemsfor their names given to them by the Ming and Qing Emperors along with the descendants of the otherFour Sages(Tứ thị): Confucius, Zengzi, andYan Hui.[26][27]

Historical sites related to his descendants include the Meng family mansion (Mạnh phủ), Temple of Mencius (Mạnh miếu), and Cemetery of Mencius (Mạnh lâm).

One of Mencius's descendants moved to Korea and founded theSinchang Maeng clan.

Main concepts[edit]

Main article:Mencius (book)
Mencius, fromMyths and Legends of China,1922 by E. T. C. Werner

Human nature[edit]

Mencius expounds on the concept that the human is naturally righteous and humane. It is the influence of society that causes badmoral character.Mencius describes this in the context of educating rulers and citizens about the nature of man. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature"[28]and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind."[29]

The four beginnings (or sprouts)[edit]

To show innate goodness, Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well.

Witnesses of this event immediately feel alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]...

The feeling of commiseration definitely is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right or wrong is the beginning ofwisdom.

Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves.[30]

Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such asXunziwho thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known asRen.[citation needed]

Education[edit]

Painting of Mengzi byKanō Sansetsu.
Japan, Edo period, 1632.

According to Mencius, education must awaken the innate abilities of the human mind. He denounced memorization and advocated active interrogation of the text, saying, "One who believes all of a book would be better off without books" (Tẫn tín thư, tắc bất như vô thư,fromMạnh tử. Tẫn tâm hạ). One should check for internal consistency by comparing sections and debate the probability of factual accounts by comparing them with experience.[citation needed]

Destiny[edit]

Mencius also believed in the power of Destiny in shaping the roles of human beings in society. What is destined cannot be contrived by the human intellect or foreseen. Destiny is shown when a path arises that is both unforeseen and constructive. Destiny should not be confused with Fate. Mencius denied that Heaven would protect a person regardless of his actions, saying, "One who understands Destiny will not stand beneath a tottering wall". The proper path is one which is natural and unforced. This path must also be maintained because, "Unused pathways are covered with weeds." One who follows Destiny will live a long and successful life. One who rebels against Destiny will die before his time.[citation needed]

Politics and economics[edit]

Mencius emphasized the significance of the common citizens in the state. While Confucianism generally regards rulers highly, he argued that it is acceptable for the subjects to overthrow or even kill a ruler who ignores the people's needs and rules harshly. This is because a ruler who does not rule justly is no longer a true ruler. Speaking of the overthrow of the wickedKing Zhou of Shang,Mencius said, "I have merely heard of killing a villain Zhou, but I have not heard of murdering [him as] the ruler."[31]

This saying should not be taken as an instigation to violence against authorities but as an application of Confucian philosophy to society. Confucianism requires a clarification of what may be reasonably expected in any given relationship. All relationships should be beneficial, but each has its own principle or inner logic. A ruler must justify his position by acting benevolently before he can expect reciprocation from the people. In this view, a king is like a steward. Although Confucius admired kings of great accomplishment, Mencius is clarifying the proper hierarchy of human society. Although a king has presumably higher status than a commoner, he is actually subordinate to the masses of people and the resources of society. Otherwise, there would be an implied disregard of the potential of human society heading into the future. One is significant only for what one gives, not for what one takes.[citation needed]

Mencius distinguished between superior men who recognize and follow the virtues of righteousness and benevolence and inferior men who do not. He suggested that superior men considered only righteousness, not benefits. That assumes "permanent property" to uphold common morality.[32]To secure benefits for the disadvantaged and the aged, he advocatedfree trade,lowtax rates,and a more equal sharing of thetax burden.[33]

In regards to the Confucian perspective of the marketplace, more about Confucius’ thoughts from Mencius than from the philosopher himself are learned. The government should have a mostly hands-off approach regarding the marketplace.[34]This was in part, to prevent state-run monopolies, however, it was also the state's responsibility to protect against future monopolies that might come into existence. Mencius also advocated for no taxes on imports; the market was to exchange for what you lacked so taxing merchants importing goods would ultimately hurt the villagers. The thought behind this is that people are inherently good and rational and can be trusted to regulate themselves, so price gouging or deception would not be an issue. Taxes on the property were acceptable and to be the only means by which the dukes and states would collect money. They did not need to collect much because taxes were only for supplemental funds.[34]These taxes were also progressive, meaning the families that owned larger, more fertile pieces of land would pay more than the families with uniform land allotments. Scarcity is an issue in any market; however, Mencius emphasizes the reframing of the idea of a scarce resource.[35]Instead of scarce, resources are to be seen as abundant. Resources are gained through work ethic not by any other means so there are no unfair competitions or gains. To preserve these natural resources, they needed to be used or harvested according to their cycles of growth or replenishing. In many cases, posterity has priority over profit.[36]

Influence[edit]

AYuan dynastyturtlewith a stele honoring Mencius

Mencius's interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially by theNeo-Confuciansof theSong dynasty.Mencius's disciples included a large number of feudal lords, and he is said to have been more influential than Confucius had been.[37]

TheMencius(also spelledMengziorMeng-tzu), a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of theFour BooksthatZhu Xigrouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, theMenciusconsists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose. It was generally neglected by theJesuit missionarieswho first translated theConfucian canonintoLatinand other European languages, as they felt that the Neo-Confucian school largely consisted ofBuddhistandTaoistcontamination ofConfucianism.Matteo Riccialso particularly disliked what they had believed to be condemnation of celibacy as unfilial, which is rather a mistranslation of a similar word referring more to aspects of personality.[citation needed]François Noël,who felt that Zhu's ideas represented a natural and native development of Confucius's thought, was the first to publish a full edition of theMenciusatPraguein 1711;[38][d]as theChinese rites controversyhad been recently decided against theJesuits,however, his edition attained little influence outside central and eastern Europe.

In a 1978 book that estimated the hundred most influential persons in history to that point, Mencius was ranked at 92.[40]

Mencius Institute[edit]

The first Mencius Institute was established inXuzhou,Chinain 2008 under a collaboration betweenJiangsu Normal University,China Zoucheng Heritage Tourism Bureau, and Xuzhou Mengshi Clan Friendship Network.[41]

First Mencius Institute outside of China is located atUniversiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR)Kampar Campus,Malaysiain 2016.[41]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^The original clan name was Mengsun ( mạnh tôn ), later shortened into Meng ( mạnh ).[citation needed]It is unknown whether this occurred before or after Mencius's death.
  2. ^Traditionally, his courtesy name was assumed to be Ziche (Tử xa), sometimes incorrectly written as Ziyu (Tử dư) or Ziju (Tử cư), but recent scholarly works show that these courtesy names appeared in the 3rd century AD and apply to another historical figure named Meng Ke who also lived in Chinese antiquity and was mistaken for Mencius.[citation needed]
  3. ^,meaning second only toConfucius.The name was given in 1530 by theJiajing Emperor.In the two centuries before 1530, the posthumous name was "The Second Sage Duke of Zou" (Trâu quốc á thánh công) which is still the name that can be seen carved in the Mencius ancestral temple in Zoucheng.[citation needed]
  4. ^Noël's transcription of the name as "Memcius or Mem Tsu" reflects the orthography of his day, which rendered/ŋ/as⟨m⟩.See, e.g., "Nankim" for "Nanjing" and "Kiamnim" for "Jiangning" on the map of China published in the 1687Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese.[39]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^abMạnh phồn ký(1 May 1971)."〈 mạnh tử kỳ nhân cập kỳ trứ thuật 〉".《 văn nghệ phục hưng 》(in Chinese) (17).Republic of China:Chinese Culture University:11－13.Quan ô mạnh tử sinh tốt niên nguyệt, các gia chi thuyết phân phân bất nhất, thanh diêm nhược cừ hữu mạnh tử sinh tốt niên nguyệt khảo diệc vị hữu định luận. “Tam thiên chí” cập “Mạnh tử thế gia phổ” tái, mạnh tử ô chu liệt vương tứ niên tứ nguyệt nhị nhật sinh ( kỷ nguyên tiền tam thất nhị niên ), chu noản vương nhị thập lục niên chính nguyệt thập ngũ nhật tốt ( kỷ nguyên tiền nhị bát cửu niên ). Mạnh tử xuất sinh đáo hiện tại dĩ kinh thị nhị thiên tam bách tứ thập nhị niên, giác khổng tử vãn liễu nhất bách thất thập cửu niên ( khổng tử sinh ô kỷ nguyên tiền ngũ ngũ nhất niên ). Căn cư giá nhất thời gian lai phúc án, mạnh tử du lương, du tề, cập kỳ tha sự tích ngôn luận thậm đa phù hợp, tổng chi hữu quan mạnh tử tối nguyên thủy chi truyện ký sử liêu, quyết vi sử ký “Mạnh tử tuân khanh liệt truyện”, nhi hựu ngữ yên bất tường, dĩ trí chư gia khảo chứng phân vân hất vô định luận.
  2. ^"Mencius".Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^Mei, Yi Pao (1985). "Mencius",The New Encyclopedia Britannica,v. 8, p. 3.
  4. ^Shun, Kwong Loi."Mencius".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Retrieved18 November2017.
  5. ^Goldin, Paul R. (2018),"Xunzi",in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Fall 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,retrieved2022-05-15
  6. ^Chan 1963: 49.
  7. ^Jaroslav Průšekand Zbigniew Słupski, eds., Dictionary of Oriental Literatures: East Asia (Charles Tuttle, 1978): 115-116.
  8. ^Mạnh tử lâmArchived2012-08-05 atarchive.today(Mencius Cemetery)
  9. ^《 tam thiên chí 》, ( thanh ) mạnh diễn thái tục tu
  10. ^《 mạnh tử thế gia phổ 》, ( thanh ) mạnh quảng quân chủ biên, 1824 niên
  11. ^《 mạnh tử dữ mạnh thị gia tộc 》, mạnh tường cư biên, 2005 niên
  12. ^H.S. Brunnert; V.V. Hagelstrom (15 April 2013).Present Day Political Organization of China.Routledge. pp. 494–.ISBN978-1-135-79795-9.
  13. ^"P.494-5. Present Day Political Organization of China".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-04-25.Retrieved2016-04-17.
  14. ^"Present day political organization of China".archive.org.
  15. ^"Sí thiên sử thư thành ---- minh sử".angelibrary.com.
  16. ^"Kanripo hán tịch リポジトリ: KR2m0014 khâm định tục văn hiến thông khảo - thanh - kê hoàng".kanripo.org.
  17. ^Sturgeon, Donald."Khâm định lịch đại chức quan biểu: Quyển lục thập lục - trung quốc triết học thư điện tử hóa kế hoa".ctext.org.
  18. ^"Minh sử trung _ hàn lâm viện".inspier.com.Archived fromthe originalon 2016-10-07.Retrieved2016-05-09.
  19. ^"● khâm định tục thông điển quyển tam thập nhất chức quan cửu - tục thông điển - tứ đại danh trứ văn học võng".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-10-07.Retrieved2016-10-04.
  20. ^Wilson, Thomas A.. 1996. "The Ritual Formation of Confucian Orthodoxy and the Descendants of the Sage".The Journal of Asian Studies 55 (3). [Cambridge University Press, Association for Asian Studies]: 559–84.doi:10.2307/2646446.JSTOR2646446p. 571.
  21. ^"Paul Chih Meng, 90, Headed China Institute".The New York Times.7 February 1990.
  22. ^"Education: China House".TIME.Sep 4, 1944. Archived fromthe originalon December 14, 2008.RetrievedMay 22,2011.
  23. ^"Đài loan nghĩ tương khổng tử phụng tự quan cải vi vinh dự chức khả do nữ tính kế thừa _ đài loan tần đạo _ tân hoa võng".xinhuanet.com.Archived fromthe originalon December 4, 2014.
  24. ^"Đài loan nho gia phụng tự quan tương cải vi vô cấp chức bất bài trừ do nữ tử kế nhậm _ tân văn trung tâm _ tân lãng võng".sina.com.cn.
  25. ^Đài loan nghĩ giảm thiếu nho gia thế tập phụng tự quan chức vị tịnh thủ tiêu bổng lộc[Taiwan intends to reduce Confucian hereditary positions and cancel the salary.].rfi.fr(in Chinese).
  26. ^(in Chinese)Khổng tính (The Kong family, descendents of Confucius)Archived2011-09-03 at theWayback Machine
  27. ^(in Chinese)Mạnh tính (The Meng family, descendents of Mencius)Archived2006-01-16 at theWayback Machine
  28. ^TheMencius7:A1 in Chan 1963: 78.
  29. ^TheMencius6:A11 in Chan 1963: 58.
  30. ^TheMencius2A:6 in Chan 1963: 65. Formatting has been applied to ease readability.
  31. ^TheMencius1B:8 in Chan 1963: 62.
  32. ^Yagi, Kiichiro (2008). "China, economics in,"The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics,v. 1, p. 778.Abstract.
  33. ^Hart, Michael H.(1978),The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History,p. 480.
  34. ^abChen, Huanzhang (1911).The economic principles of Confucius and his school.Columbia University, Longmans, Green & Co., Agents; [etc., etc.]OCLC492146426.
  35. ^Estate, The Arthur Waley (2012-11-12).The Analects of Confucius.doi:10.4324/9780203715246.ISBN9780203715246.
  36. ^Martin, Michael R. (1990-02-01)."David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, Thinking Through Confucius, State University of New York Press, 19137".Journal of Chinese Philosophy.17(4): 495–503.doi:10.1163/15406253-01704005.ISSN0301-8121.
  37. ^Charles O. Hucker,China to 1850: A Short History,Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978, p. 45
  38. ^Noël (1711).
  39. ^"Paradigma XV Provinciarum et CLV Urbium Capitalium Sinensis Imperij[A Schematic of the 15 Provinces and 155 Chief Cities of the Chinese Empire] ",Confucius Sinarum Philosophus...[Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese...],Paris: Daniel Horthemels, 1687, Bk. III, p. 104.(in Latin)
  40. ^Hart, Michael H.(1978),The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History,p. 7, discussed on pp. 479–81.
  41. ^ab"Proud addition to university".The Star.

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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