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Mesopotamia
A map showing the extent of Mesopotamia. Shown areWashukanni,Nineveh,Hatra,Assur,Nuzi,Palmyra,Mari,Sippar,Babylon,Kish,Nippur,Isin,Lagash,Uruk,Charax SpasinuandUr,from north to south.
A modern satellite view of Mesopotamia, October 2020.
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Mesopotamia[a]is ahistorical regionofWest Asiasituated within theTigris–Euphrates river system,in the northern part of theFertile Crescent.Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-dayIraq.[1][2]In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia also includes parts of present-dayIran,Turkey,SyriaandKuwait.[3][4]

Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of theNeolithic Revolutionfrom around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of thewheel,the planting of the firstcerealcrops,and the development ofcursivescript,mathematics,astronomy,andagriculture".It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations.[5]

TheSumeriansandAkkadians,each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning ofrecorded history(c. 3100 BC) to thefall of Babylonin 539 BC. The rise of empires, beginning withSargon of Akkadaround 2350 BC, characterized the subsequent 2,000 years of Mesopotamian history, marked by the succession of kingdoms and empires such as theAkkadian Empire.The early second millennium BC saw the polarization of Mesopotamian society intoAssyriain the north andBabyloniain the south. From 900 to 612 BC, theNeo-Assyrian Empireasserted control over much of the ancient Near East. Subsequently, the Babylonians, who had long been overshadowed by Assyria,seized power,dominating the region for a century as the final independent Mesopotamian realm until the modern era.[6]In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by theAchaemenid Empire.The area was next conquered byAlexander the Greatin 332 BC. After his death, it became part of the GreekSeleucid Empire.

Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of theParthian Empire.It became a battleground between theRomansand Parthians, with western parts of the region coming under ephemeral Roman control. In 226 AD, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to theSassanid Persians.The division of the region between the Roman Byzantine Empire from 395 AD and the Sassanid Empire lasted until the 7th centuryMuslim conquest of Persiaof theSasanian Empireand theMuslim conquest of the Levantfrom the Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, includingAdiabene,Osroene,andHatra.

Etymology

The regional toponymMesopotamia(/ˌmɛsəpəˈteɪmiə/,Ancient Greek:Μεσοποταμία'[land] between rivers';Arabic:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْنBilād ar-Rāfidaynorبَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْنBayn an-Nahrayn;Persian:میانرودانmiyân rudân;Syriac:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢBeth Nahrain"(land) between the (two) rivers" ) comes from theancient Greekroot wordsμέσος(mesos,'middle') andποταμός(potamos,'river')[7]and translates to '(land) between rivers', likely being acalqueof the olderAramaicterm, with the Aramaic term itself likely being a calque of theAkkadianbirit narim.It is used throughout the GreekSeptuagint(c. 250 BC) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalentNaharaim.An even earlier Greek usage of the nameMesopotamiais evident fromThe Anabasis of Alexander,which was written in the late 2nd century AD but specifically refers to sources from the time ofAlexander the Great.In theAnabasis,Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of theEuphratesin northSyria.

TheAkkadiantermbiritum/birit narimcorresponded to a similar geographical concept.[8]Later, the termMesopotamiawas more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and theTigris,thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all ofIraqand southeasternTurkey.[9]The neighbouringsteppesto the west of the Euphrates and the western part of theZagros Mountainsare also often included under the wider termMesopotamia.[10][11][12]

A further distinction is usually made betweenNorthernorUpper MesopotamiaandSouthernorLower Mesopotamia.[2]Upper Mesopotamia, also known as theJazira,is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down toBaghdad.[10]Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to thePersian Gulfand includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.[2]

In modern academic usage, the termMesopotamiaoften also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until theMuslim conquests,with names likeSyria,Jazira,andIraqbeing used to describe the region after that date.[9][13]It has been argued that these later euphemisms[clarification needed]areEurocentricterms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.[13][14]

Geography

Main article:Geography of Mesopotamia
TheTigrisriver flowing through the region of modernMosulin Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian Marshesat night, southern Iraq. A reed house (Mudhif) and a narrow canoe (Mashoof) are in the water. Mudhif structures have been one of the traditional types of structures, built by theMarsh peopleof southern Mesopotamia for at least 5,000 years. A carved elevation of a typical mudhif, dating to around 3,300 BCE was discovered atUruk.[15]

Mesopotamia encompasses the land between theEuphratesandTigrisrivers, both of which have their headwaters in the neighboringArmenian highlands.Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000-square-kilometre (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into thePersian Gulf.

Thearidenvironment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential.[16]This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northernZagros Mountainsand from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.

Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas.[17]In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix.

Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecologicalcarrying capacity,and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units.[18]These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.

History

Main articles:History of MesopotamiaandPrehistory of Mesopotamia
Further information:History of Iraq,History of the Middle East,andChronology of the ancient Near East
One of 18Statues of Gudea,a ruler around 2090 BC

The prehistory of theAncient Near Eastbegins in theLower Paleolithicperiod. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script,Proto-cuneiform,in the Uruk IV period (c. late 4th millennium BC). The documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the early-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire history ends with either the arrival of theAchaemenid Empirein the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of theCaliphatein the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known asIraq.In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states.

The region was one of thefour riverine civilizationswherewritingwas invented, along with theNilevalley inAncient Egypt,theIndus Valley civilizationin theIndian subcontinent,and theYellow RiverinAncient China.Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such asUruk,Nippur,Nineveh,AssurandBabylon,as well as major territorial states such as the city ofEridu,the Akkadian kingdoms, theThird Dynasty of Ur,and the variousAssyrianempires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders wereUr-Nammu(king of Ur),Sargon of Akkad(who established the Akkadian Empire),Hammurabi(who established the Old Babylonian state),Ashur-uballit IandTiglath-Pileser I(who established the Assyrian Empire).

Scientists analysedDNAfrom the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard inGermany.They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today'sTurkeyandIraq.[19]

Periodization

After early starts inJarmo(red dot, circa 7500 BC), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around theHassuna culturein the north, theHalaf culturein the northwest, theSamarra culturein central Mesopotamia and theUbaid culturein the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.
A map of 15th century BC, showing the core territory ofAssyriawith its two major citiesAssurandNinevehwedged betweenBabyloniadownstream. The states ofMitanniandHattiare upstream.

Language and writing

Square, yellow plaque showing a lion biting in the neck of a man lying on his back
TheCode of Hammurabiis aBabylonianlegal text composedc.1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from theancient Near East.It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect ofAkkadian,purportedly byHammurabi,sixth king of theFirst Dynasty of Babylon.
Main articles:Akkadian languageandSumerian language

The earliest language written in Mesopotamia wasSumerian,anagglutinativelanguage isolate.Along with Sumerian,Semitic languageswere also spoken in early Mesopotamia.[21]Subartuan,[22]a language of the Zagros possibly related to theHurro-Urartuan language family,is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts.Akkadiancame to be the dominant language during theAkkadian Empireand theAssyrianempires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes.

Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of theNeo-Babylonianperiod.Old Aramaic,which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first theNeo-Assyrian Empire,and then theAchaemenid Empire:the officiallectis calledImperial Aramaic.Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.

Early in Mesopotamia's history, around the mid-4th millennium BC,cuneiformwas invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed frompictograms.The earliest texts, 7 archaic tablets, come from theÉ,a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.

The earlylogographicsystem of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired asscribesto be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of asyllabicscript was adopted under Sargon's rule[23]that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.

Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC. The exact dating being a matter of debate.[24]Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.

Literature

Main articles:Akkadian literatureandSumerian literature
TheEpic of Gilgamesh,anepic poemfrom ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.

Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write,[25]and for theSemiticBabylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.

A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.

Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was theEpic of Gilgamesh,in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certainSîn-lēqi-unninni,and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career ofGilgamesh.The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.

Science and technology

Mathematics

Main article:Babylonian mathematics
Aclay tablet,mathematical, geometric-algebraic, similar to the Euclidean geometry. FromShaduppumIraq. 2003–1595 BC.Iraq Museum.

Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on asexagesimal(base 60)numeral system.This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degreecircle. TheSumerian calendarwas lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. This form of mathematics was instrumental in earlymap-making.The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct ifπwere fixed at 3.[26]

The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of thefrustumof a cone or asquare pyramidwas incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet usedπas 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time.[27]

Algebra

Main articles:AlgebraandSquare root of 2

The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonia[28]who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in analgorithmicfashion.


TheBabylonianclay tabletYBC 7289(c. 1800–1600 BC) gives an approximation of√2in foursexagesimalfigures,1 24 51 10,which is accurate to about sixdecimaldigits,[29]and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of√2:


The Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions, but rather approximations, and so they would commonly uselinear interpolationto approximate intermediate values.[30]One of the most famous tablets is thePlimpton 322 tablet,created around 1900–1600 BC, which gives a table ofPythagorean triplesand represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek mathematics.[31]

Astronomy

Main article:Babylonian astronomy

FromSumeriantimes, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, whenLimmulists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.

The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predicteclipsesandsolstices.Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the earlyuniverseand began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and thephilosophy of scienceand some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution.[32]This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

InSeleucidandParthiantimes, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific. How much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in thehistory of astronomy.

The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported aheliocentricmodel of planetary motion wasSeleucus of Seleucia(b. 190 BC).[33][34][35]Seleucus is known from the writings ofPlutarch.He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where theEarth rotatedaround its own axis which in turn revolved around theSun.According toPlutarch,Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used, except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of the Moon's attraction.

Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much ofGreek,classical Indian,Sassanian,Byzantine,Syrian,medieval Islamic,Central Asian,andWestern Europeanastronomy.[36]

Medicine

A medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, fromNippur,Iraq.

The oldest Babylonian texts onmedicinedate back to theOld Babylonianperiod in the first half of the2nd millennium BC.The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is theDiagnostic Handbookwritten by theummânū,or chief scholar,Esagil-kin-apliofBorsippa,[37]during the reign of the Babylonian kingAdad-apla-iddina(1069–1046 BC).[38]

Along with contemporaryEgyptian medicine,the Babylonians introduced the concepts ofdiagnosis,prognosis,physical examination,enemas,[39]andprescriptions.TheDiagnostic Handbookintroduced the methods oftherapyandaetiologyand the use ofempiricism,logic,andrationalityin diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medicalsymptomsand often detailed empiricalobservationsalong with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of apatientwith its diagnosis and prognosis.[40]

The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such asbandages,creamsandpills.If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied onexorcismto cleanse the patient from anycurses.Esagil-kin-apli'sDiagnostic Handbookwas based on a logical set ofaxiomsand assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination andinspectionof the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient'sdisease,its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.[37]

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety ofillnessesand diseases and described their symptoms in hisDiagnostic Handbook.These include the symptoms for many varieties ofepilepsyand relatedailmentsalong with their diagnosis and prognosis.[41]Some treatments used were likely based off the known characteristics of the ingredients used. The others were based on the symbolic qualities.[42]

Technology

Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving,flood control,water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the firstBronze Agesocieties in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, andmaces.

According to a recent hypothesis, theArchimedes' screwmay have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at theHanging Gardens of BabylonandNinevehin the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be aGreekinvention of later times.[43]Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, theBaghdad Battery,which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.[44]

Religion and philosophy

Main article:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
TheBurney Relief,First Babylonian dynasty,around 1800 BC

TheAncient Mesopotamian religionwas the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc,[45]surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that,heaven.They believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that theuniversewas born from this enormous sea. Mesopotamian religion waspolytheistic.Although thebeliefsdescribed above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe isan-ki,which refers to the godAnand the goddessKi.[46]Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of thepantheon.

Philosophy

The numerous civilizations of the area influenced theAbrahamic religions,especially theHebrew Bible.Its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in theBook of Genesis.[47]

Giorgio Buccellatibelieves that the origins ofphilosophycan be traced back to early Mesopotamianwisdom,which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularlyethics,in the forms ofdialectic,dialogues,epic poetry,folklore,hymns,lyrics,proseworks, andproverbs.Babylonianreasonandrationalitydeveloped beyondempiricalobservation.[48]

Babylonian thought was also based on anopen-systemsontologywhich is compatible withergodicaxioms.[49]Logic was employed to some extent inBabylonian astronomyand medicine.

Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on earlyAncient GreekandHellenistic philosophy.In particular, the Babylonian textDialogue of Pessimismcontains similarities to the agonistic thought of theSophists,theHeracliteandoctrine ofdialectic,and the dialogs ofPlato,as well as a precursor to theSocratic method.[50]TheIonianphilosopherThaleswas influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.

Culture

KingMeli-shipak I(1186–1172 BC) presents his daughter to the goddessNannaya.The crescent moon represents the godSin,the sun theShamashand the star the goddessIshtar.[51][52]

Festivals

Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:

  1. TheLunar phase(a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)
  2. The phase of the annual agricultural cycle
  3. Equinoxesandsolstices
  4. The local mythos and its divine Patrons
  5. The success of the reigning Monarch
  6. TheAkitu,orNew YearFestival (first full moon after spring equinox)
  7. Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)

Music

Main article:Music of Mesopotamia
The Queen's goldlyrefrom theRoyal Cemetery at Ur.c. 2500 BCE.Iraq Museum

Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amusedkings,they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in themarketplaces.

Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through manygenerationsas an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through thecenturieshighly important information about historical events.

Games

Jemdet Nasr Cylinder presenting a hunting scene, with two lions and an antelope.c. 3100to 2900 BC.

Huntingwas popular among Assyrian kings.Boxingandwrestlingfeature frequently in art, and some form ofpolowas probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.[53]

They also played a board game similar tosenetandbackgammon,now known as the "Royal Game of Ur".

Family life

The Babylonian marriage marketby the 19th-century painterEdwin Long

Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those ofUrukagina,Lipit IshtarandHammurabi,across its history became more and more apatriarchal society,one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the"en",or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as others, have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.[54]

As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.[55]Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learnhousekeepingandcooking,and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia hadrights.They could ownpropertyand, if they had good reason, get adivorce.[56]: 78–79 

Burials

Hundreds ofgraveshave been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamianburialhabits. In the city ofUr,most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats andcarpets.Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the familychapel.Other remains have been found buried in common citygraveyards.17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.[57]

Economy

Mining areas of the ancientWest Asia.

Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scalesystem of loans and credit.The Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercialbanking.It was comparable in some ways to modernpost-Keynesian economics,but with a more "anything goes" approach.[49]

Agriculture

Main article:Agriculture in Mesopotamia

Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.[58]

In the early period down toUr IIItemples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The wordEnsiwas used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture.Villeinsare known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.[59]

The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish, used both for food and fertilizer, reeds, and clay, for building materials. With irrigation, thefood supplyin Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.[60]

A map of the Fertile Crescent including the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of theFertile Crescent,which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good forcrops,portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Thus the development ofirrigationbecame very important forsettlersof Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamianinnovationsinclude the control of water bydamsand the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used woodenplowsto soften thesoilbefore planting crops such asbarley,onions,grapes,turnips,andapples.

Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to makebeerandwine.As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend onslavesto complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical, i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slaves. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers. Crops were often ruined, so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were kept. Over time the southernmost parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.

Trade

Mesopotamian trade with theIndus Valley civilisationflourished as early as the third millennium BC.[61]Cylinder seals found throughout ANE is evidence of trade between Mesopotamian cities.[62]Starting in the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamian civilizations also traded withancient Egypt(seeEgypt–Mesopotamia relations).[63][64]

For much of history, Mesopotamia served as atrade nexus– east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world[65] (part of theSilk Road), as well as north–south between the Eastern Europe andBaghdad(Volga trade route).Vasco da Gama's pioneering (1497–1499) of thesea route between India and Europeand the opening of theSuez Canalin 1869 impacted on this nexus.[66][67]

Government

Main article:History of institutions in Mesopotamia

The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities, along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became acity-state,independent of the others and protective of its independence.

At times, one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified byEannatum.The unification was tenuous and failed to last, as the Akkadians conquered Sumer in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see a peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.

Kings

Further information:List of Mesopotamian dynasties,List of kings of Babylon,andList of Assyrian kings
A 7th-century BC relief depictingAshurbanipal,r. 669–631 BC, and three royal attendants in achariot.

The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the citygods,but, unlike theancient Egyptians,they never believed their kings were real gods.[68]Most kings named themselves "king of the universe" or "great king". Another common name was "shepherd",as kings had to look after their people.

Power

When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, calledprovinces.Each of these were named after their main cities, likeNineveh,Samaria,Damascus,andArpad.They all had their own governor, who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire.

Although Babylon was quite a smallstatein Sumer, it grew tremendously throughout the time ofHammurabi's rule. He was known as "the lawmaker" and created theCode of Hammurabi.SoonBabylonbecame one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It became one of history's greatest centers of learning.

Warfare

See also:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian EmpireandWarfare in Sumer
See caption
A relief showing a campaign in theMesopotamian Marshesof southernBabyloniaduring the reign ofAshurbanipal.Assyrian soldiers are on a boat, chasing fleeing enemies. Some are hiding in the reeds
The Standard of Ur, 2600 BC, the Early Dynastic Period III. Shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood. Discovered at theRoyal Cemetery at Ur,Dhi Qar Governorate,Iraq

With the end of theUrukphase, walled cities grew. Many isolatedUbaidvillages were abandoned, indicating a rise in communal violence. An early kingLugalbandawas supposed to have built the white walls around the city. Ascity-statesbegan to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC, but was not common until about 2500 BC.[69]

AnEarly Dynastic IIking (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits againstHumbabaguardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The laterStele of the Vulturesat the end of theEarly Dynastic IIIperiod (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory ofEannatumofLagashover the neighbouring rival city ofUmma,is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.[70]

From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times, a neutral city acted as an arbitrator for two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states.[68]When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with cities in modern-day Syria. Many Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.

The Neo-Babylonian kings used deportation as a means of control, like their predecessors, the Assyrians. For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder, sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood, and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves in the temples which they built. The Assyrians displaced populations throughout their vast empire. This practice under the Babylonian kings was more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased, or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians, since there is evidence that the cityAscalonwas destroyed byNebuchadnezzar IIin 604 BC.[71][72]

Laws

See also:Mesopotamian marriage law

City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes ofUrukaginaandLipit-Ishtar(theCode of Lipit-Ishtar) have been found. The most renowned of these was that ofHammurabi,as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, theCode of Hammurabi,createdc. 1780 BC,which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves.[73]

Art

Main article:Art of Mesopotamia

The art of Mesopotamia rivalledthat of Ancient Egyptas the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in westernEurasia,from the 4th millennium BC until thePersianAchaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay. Little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes. Most sculpture was also painted.

TheProtoliterate period,dominated byUruk,saw the production of sophisticated works like theWarka Vaseandcylinder seals.TheGuennol Lionessis an outstanding smalllimestonefigure fromElamof about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion.[74]A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended templecult imagesof the deity, but very few of these have survived.[75]Sculptures from theSumerianandAkkadianperiod generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have been found at the Royal Cemetery atUr(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of aRam in a Thicket,theCopper Bulland a bull's head on one of theLyres of Ur.[76]

From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.[77]TheBurney Reliefis an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches)terracottaplaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded.[78]

Stonestelae,votive offerings,or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them.[79]The fragmentaryStele of the Vulturesis an early example of the inscribed type.[80]The AssyrianBlack Obelisk of Shalmaneser IIIa large and solid late one.[81]

The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting. TheBritish Museumhas an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headedlamassu,which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round, and five legs, so that both views seem complete. Even before dominating the region, they continued the cylinder seal tradition, with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[82]

  • Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.[83]
    Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered inNinevehin 1931, presumably depicting eitherSargon of Akkador Sargon's grandsonNaram-Sin.[83]
  • Striding lions from the Processional Street of Babylon.
    Striding lions from the Processional Street ofBabylon.
  • Lamassu, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called Lamma, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name Lamassu.[84][85]
    Lamassu,initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was calledLamma,it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the nameLamassu.[84][85]
  • Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920
    Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920
  • Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, fromBabylon
  • Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace fromThe Monuments of NinevehbyAusten Henry Layard,1853
  • ANeo-Assyrianrelief of Ashur as afeather robed archerholding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)
  • TheBlack Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king. FromNimrud
  • "Winged genie",Nimrudc. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff.

Architecture

Main article:Architecture of Mesopotamia

The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on availablearchaeologicalevidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.[86]Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.

Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities.[87]Thezigguratis the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which theIshtar Gatefrom Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in thePergamon MuseuminBerlin.

The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes atUrukfrom the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from theEarly Dynastic periodsites in theDiyala Rivervalley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, theThird Dynasty of Urremains atNippur(Sanctuary ofEnlil) andUr(Sanctuary ofNanna), MiddleBronze Ageremains at Syrian-Turkish sites ofEbla,Mari,Alalakh,AleppoandKultepe,Late Bronze Age palaces atHattusa,Ugarit,AshurandNuzi.

Iron Age palaces and temples are found at theAssyrian(Kalhu/Nimrud,Khorsabad,Nineveh),Babylonian(Babylon),Urartian(Tushpa/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis,Armavir,Erebuni,Bastam) andNeo-Hittitesites (Karkamis,Tell Halaf,Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from theIron Age.

References

Notes

  1. ^Turkish:Mezopotamya;Ancient Greek:ΜεσοποταμίαMesopotamíā;Arabic:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْنBilād ar-Rāfidaynorبَيْنُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْنBayn ul-Nahrayn;Classical Syriac:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ,Bēṯ Nahrēn

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Sources

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related toMesopotamia.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide forAncient Mesopotamia.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide forMesopotamia (Region).
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