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Mestizos in Mexico

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Mestizos in Mexico
Languages
Mexican Spanishandminority languages
Religion
Roman Catholicism,Protestantism

In Mexico, the termmestizo(lit. "mixed" ) refers to anidentityof those of mixedEuropean(mainly Spanish) andIndigenous Mexicandescent. Some believe it can be defined by criteria ranging from ideological and cultural to self-identification, genetic ancestry, or physical appearance. According to these criteria, estimates of the number ofmestizosin Mexico vary from about 40 percent of the population to over 90% (including Indigenous people that do not recognize themselves as part of an Indigenous culture andWhite Mexicans) who do not belong to the country's culturally indigenous minorities. A survey done by Latinobarometro in 2018 found that around 58% of Mexicans self-identify as mestizos when asked about their race, and another survey byCohesión Socialfound that over 70% of Mexicans identified as mixed-race. Some genetic studies have claimed that mestizos make up over 93% of Mexico's present-day population, but this is disputed, with many Mexicans, including those of mixed ancestry, identifying more with static racial labels such as "white" or "indigenous" rather than mestizo, and a large number simply identifying as "Mexican," rejecting racialized labels.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

The meaning of the wordmestizohas changed with time; it was originally used in thecolonial erato refer to individuals who had one Spanish and oneAmerindianparent. Although the caste system and racial classification were officially abandoned when Mexico becameindependent,the labelmestizowas still used in academic circles to refer to people ofmixed race.Amestizoideology was created (exemplified by theJosé VasconcelosessayLa raza cósmica) thatmestizosare the result of racial mixing, and all Mexico must becomemestizoso the country could achieve prosperity. After theMexican Revolution,the government adopted and promoted themestizoideology to create a unified Mexican identity with no racial distinctions. By 1930, racial identities other than "indigenous" disappeared from the Mexican census. All Mexicans who did not speak indigenous languages (including European Mexicans) were now consideredmestizo,transforming a racial identity into a national one.[1]

People of differentphenotypesmake up Mexico'smestizopopulation, with many being of predominantly European or predominantly Indigenous ancestry.[5]Since the term has a number of socio-cultural, economic, racial and genetic meanings, estimates of the Mexicanmestizopopulation vary widely. According to theEncyclopædia Britannica,which bases its estimate on the 1921 census, from one-half to two-thirds of the Mexican population ismestizo.[8]As Mexico's national identity, all Mexicans who are not indigenous and participate in the nation'sculturemay be consideredmestizo(culturally Mexican) regardless of racial background.[1]The word had disappeared from the popular Mexican vocabulary long ago, since it had a pejorative connotation.[9]Some modern academics have challenged themestizoconcept on the grounds that census data indicates that marriages between people of different races were rare;[10]arguing that the ideology has incentivized racism rather than ending it, denying Mexico's distinct ethnic groups and cultures.[11]

History

[edit]
Further information:Casta
Statue of Gonzalo Guerrero in native dress with two young children
Monument to the Mestizaje inMexico City,showingHernan Cortes,La Malincheand their son,Martín Cortes,one of the first mestizos in Mexico.

When the termmestizoand the caste system were introduced to Mexico is unknown, but the earliest surviving records categorizing people by "qualities" (as castes were known in early colonial Mexico) are late-18th-century church birth and marriage records.[12]An extensive caste system assigned a name to each possible racial combination; unlike later definitions ofmestizo,in these records it referred only to people with half-Spanish and half-indigenous ancestry. The system is present inNew Spain's first national census (in 1793), in whichcastizo,pardo,mulattoandzamboare also collectively listed as "castes".[13]The caste system and racial censuses were legally abandoned after independence, and academics who reviewed and republished the census figures referred to the castes simply asmestizos.[14]

See caption
An 18th-centurycastapainting of an indigenous woman with her Spanish husband and theirmestizochild

A number of historians have questioned the existence of a caste system, considering it a fabrication by historians which began during the 1940s.Pilar Gonzalbo,in her study "The Trap of the Caste", discards the idea of a caste-based society in New Spain understood as a "social organization based on the race and supported by coercive power".[This quote needs a citation]

More-detailed painting
An 18th centurycaste paintingwith all 16 combinations ofNew Spainwith the mestizo in frame # 1.

Recent scholarship questions the existence of a caste system and reviewing the use of terms in colonial sources. According to a journal article, "In the twentieth century, the prestige of authors such as Angel Rosenblat and Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, who unreservedly admitted the concept of society of caste, has determined the perpetuation of a myth of social stratification based on race".[15]

The new definition ofmestizowas used in the 1921 census (the second nationwide census which included a comprehensive racial classification). The census was conducted after the Mexican Revolution, when the government was rebuilding the country and hoped to unite all Mexicans in a single national identity.[16]The government found the identity in themestizoideology forged by the academics and politiciansJosé VasconcelosandManuel Gamio,which asserted that Mexicanmestizosresulted from mixing all the races; with the best qualities of each race, Mexico would achieve prosperity when the country's entire population becamemestizo.By the 1930 census the racial classifications of "White" and "Mestizo" had disappeared, and all Mexicans who did not speak an indigenous language were implicitly consideredmestizo.[1]The government also implemented cultural policies designed to "help" indigenous peoples achieve the same level of progress asmestizosociety, eventually assimilating them into mainstream Mexican culture to solve the "Indian problem" by transforming indigenous communities intomestizoones.[3]

Although the concept ofmestizohas been generally praised in Mexican intellectual circles, it has recently been criticized; according to detractors, it delegitimizes the importance of race in Mexico by saying that "(racism) [does] not exist here (in Mexico), as everybody is Mestizo."[17]A study concludes that Mexico introducing racial classification and accepting itself as a multicultural country (rather than a monolithicmestizocountry) would benefit Mexican society as a whole.[11]Other critics say that the ideology could not homogenize Mexico's races because it sought to "whiten" indigenous peoples rather than "Indianize" whites[18]and accidentally erased minority ethnic groups (such as Afro-Mexicans) from history.[19]

Outside Mexico, the wordmestizois still used to refer to people with mixed indigenous and European ancestry. This does not conform to present-day Mexican usage, where a person of indigenous genetic heritage would be consideredmestizoby rejecting his indigenous culture or not speaking an indigenous language[9]and a person with little (or no) indigenous genetic heritage would be considered indigenous by speaking an indigenous language or identifying with an indigenous cultural heritage.[2]In some regions, such as theYucatán Peninsula,mestizorefers to Maya-speaking populations in traditional communities for historical reasons. InChiapas,Ladinois used instead ofmestizo.[9]

Mestizois not widely used in contemporary Mexican society; its use is limited to social and cultural studies when referring to the non-indigenous Mexican population. It has a pejorative connotation; most Mexicans who would be defined asmestizosin sociological literature would probably self-identify as Mexicans,[9]complicating their quantification via self-identification. This contrasts with ethno-racial terms such as "Indian", "White" and "Black", still common in everyday Mexican social interactions.[11]

Genetic studies

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Genetic ancestry of Mexicans according to various sources[20][21]

European(51.49%)
Amerindian(42.91%)
African(5.3%)
Asian(0.3%)

Population genetics

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Mexicans who are geneticallymestizoare primarily ofEuropeanandNative Americanancestry.

At the end of the colonial period, about 10 percent of the population (Euromestizos and Indomestizos were estimated at 1,000,000 and 600,000, respectively).[22]

Themestizoideology, which has blurred racial lines at the institutional level, has significantly influenced Mexican genetic studies.[23]Since the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican ismestizoor indigenous are often cultural traits (such as language spoken) instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection, studies of populations considered indigenous because of the language spoken (like theNahuasfromVeracruz) indicate a higher degree of European genetic admixture than populations consideredmestizoin other studies.[24]Populations consideredmestizoare also genetically closer to continental European peoples (like those inDurango)[25]orEuropean Americans(like those inJalisco).[26]

Autosomal studies

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The genetic ancestry of Mestizo Mexicans varies by methodology and study. Typically, older studies have pointed towards a heavier European admixture while more recent ones commonly show a dominant Native American component. Admixture also varies by region, wealth, and sample size. Findings from these studies show Native American admixture being more dominant in the Central and Southern regions of Mexico whereas European admixture is greater in the Northern regions of Mexico. Some Mestizos may identify as "White," which generally indicates that European ancestry is the dominant element in their genetic makeup. This identity often reflects a heritage where European characteristics are the most visible or prominent in their appearance. However, this typically doesnotmean they are purely European in ancestry and likely have significant native contribution. Genetic research on theMexican populationis abundant, and has yielded a variety of results. Genetic studies in the same location vary. InMonterrey,Nuevo León,studies indicate an averageEuropeanancestry ranging from 38[27]to 78 percent;[28]inMexico City,European admixture ranges from 21[29]to 70 percent.[30]Reasons for the variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples[30]and the criteria for recruiting volunteers. Some studies only analyze Mexicans who self-identify asmestizo,[31]and others classify the entire Mexican population asmestizo.[32]Other studies may do both, such as the 2009 genetic study published by theInstituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica(INMEGEN) which reported that 93 percent of the Mexican population ismestizo;the remainder wereAmerindian.However, the INMEGEN study only recruited people who self-identified asmestizo.[33]Some studies avoid racial classification, including anyone who self-identifies as Mexican. Thismaysuggest that studies that use a more inclusive classification have higher European ancestry, but at the moment it is undetermined.

Regardless of criteria, the autosomal DNA studies agree that there is significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed. Southern Mexico has the most prevalent Amerindian ancestry and small (but higher than average)Africangenetic contributions; Central Mexico (where most of the population lives) leans towards the Native American component. European admixture gradually increases in the West and especially theNorth.[34]In cities on theMexico–United States border,studies suggest a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture.[35]

A 2006 INMEGEN study whichgenotyped104 samples from the states of Sonora, Yucatan, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Veracruz, and Guanajuato, reported thatmestizoMexicans in those areas combined average 59 percent European, 35 percent "Asian" (primarily Amerindian), and 5 percent other.[36]INMEGEN research has found that Mexico'smestizopopulation is not uniform in its genetic composition, with significant regional variation.[33]Light-skinnedmestizospredominate inSonora,andmestizosfrom the central region (GuanajuatoandZacatecas) are split between indigenous and European composition.[33]The highest African contribution in the twelve participatingstates(representative of the country's majorregions) was found inGuerreroandVeracruz,and the highest Asian contribution was found in Guerrero and Sonora.[33]

However, In 2009 INMEGEN published an updated version of the study with a much larger sample size of 300 identified mestizos. The combined admixture average resulted in modest variation, with 55.2% Native American, 41.8% European, 1.8% African, and 1.2% Asian. In this group, Sonora had the most European admixture at 61.6%, while Guerrero had the least amount of European admixture at only 28.5%.[37]Researchers in other reports have indicated that recent samples are more likely to contain a dominant Native American component compared to older ones. Researchers Francisco Salzano and Mónica Sans stated, "European ancestry is most prevalent in the north (Chihuahua, 50%; Sonora, 62%; Nuevo León, 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."[38]

According to a nationwide autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), Mexican genetic admixture is 60.1% Native American, 29.8% European, and 10.1% African.[39]

In 2014, researchers Francisco Salzano and Mónica Sans looked through approximately twenty previous studies done on the admixture of Mexicans. Their general conclusion was the average Mexican is more Native American than European.[38]Subsequently, in 2015, a separate team of researchers performed a meta-analysis, incorporating the findings of many previous studies with additional research. This comprehensive analysis revealed a genetic composition with an average of 62% Native American, 32% European, and 6% African.[40]

AUniversity College Londonstudy which included Mexico, Brazil, Chile andColombia,conducted with each country's anthropology and genetics institutes, reported that the genetic ancestry of Mexicanmestizoswas 60 percent Native American, 36 percent European and 4% African, making Mexico (after Peru and Bolivia) the country with the highest Amerindian ancestry of the five sample populations however this mostly used individuals from the southern part of Mexico with little representation of the north, which comprises a significant portion of the population.[41]Phenotypical traits were analyzed; the frequency of blond hair andlight eyesin Mexicans was 18.5 and 28.5 percent, respectively,[41]giving Mexico the study's second-highest frequency of blond hair. The reason for the discrepancy between phenotypical traits and genetic ancestry may lie in the low African contribution in the Mexican population compared with that of Brazil and Colombia.

An extensive study published in 2020 estimated Mexican mestizo admixture using HLA class I and class II allele groups. The sample group was a total of 15,318 mixed ancestry Mexicans from all states of the country. Genetic estimators revealed that the main genetic components in Mexico as a whole are Native American (ranging from 37.8% in the northern part of the country to 81.5% in the southeastern region) and European (ranging from 11.5% in the southeast to 62.6% in northern Mexico).[42]

Additional studies correlate a tendency toward higher European admixture with higher socioeconomic status, and higher Amerindian ancestry with lower socioeconomic status. A study of low-incomemestizosin Mexico City found the mean admixture 0.590, 0.348 and 0.062 for Amerindian, European and African, respectively. European admixture was found to be about 70 percent on average formestizosin one report in which they're suggested to be at a higher socioeconomic level, however, this data was published in 1978, which could make the findings outdated.[30]

A 2011autosomalDNA study conducted in Mexico City with 1,310 samples indicated that the average proportion of Native American, European, and African ancestry for the population was 64, 32 and four percent, respectively. Additional autosomal DNA studies conducted on people from Mexico City show a predominantly Native American background, with Native American ancestry ranging from 61 to 69 percent in five studies. The number of people sampled in the studies ranged from 66 to 984.[43][44][45][46][47]Anoutlierstudy indicated a predominantly-European background for Mexico Citymestizos:57 percent European ancestry, 40 percent Native American ancestry, and three percent African ancestry. However, the study sampled only 19 people making it unlikely to be representative.[48]

MtDna and Y DNA studies

[edit]

A 2012 study published by theJournal of Human GeneticsofY chromosomesfound the paternal ancestry of the Mexicanmestizopopulation predominately European (64.9 percent), followed by Amerindian (30.8 percent) and African (1.2 percent).[32] The European Y chromosome was more prevalent in the north and west (66.7 to 95 percent), and Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (37 to 50 percent); African ancestry relatively homogeneous (2 to 8.8 percent).[32]States participating in the study whereAguascalientes,Chiapas,Chihuahua,Durango,Guerrero,Jalisco,Oaxaca,Sinaloa,VeracruzandYucatán.[32]The greatest number of chromosomes found were identified as belonging tohaplogroupsfromWestern Europe,East Europe and Eurasia,Siberia and the AmericasandNorthern Europe,with traces of haplogroups fromCentral Asia,Southeast Asia,South Asia,Western Asia,the Caucasus,North Africa,theNear East,East Asia,Northeast Asia,Southwest Asiaand theMiddle East.[32]A study published in 2011 of Mexicanmitochondrial DNAfound that maternal ancestry was predominately Native American (85–90 percent), with a minority having European (five to seven percent) or African (three to five percent) mtDNA.[49]

A Mexico City autosomal ancestry study found that the European ancestry of Mexicans was 52 percent; the remainder was primarily Amerindian, with a small African contribution. Maternal ancestry was also analyzed, with 47 percent of European origin. The only criterion for sample selection was that the volunteers self-identified as Mexican. However, the sample pool was rather low at only 37 participants making its accuracy dubious at best.[50]

Culture

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New Spain developed a culture distinct from indigenous and Spanish culture, with African and low Asian influences. After independence, the Mexican population was estimated at 50–60 percent indigenous, 18 to 22 percentCreoleand about two percent Black; the rest of the population (21 to 25 percent) was consideredmestizo,an important part of the independence movement.[14]

Music

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Old photo of male musicians
A Sinaloa band in 1900, a genre ofregional Mexicanmusic invented by mestizo mexicans.

Thebanda de vientois a musical ensemble primarily consisting of wind instruments, brass, and percussion. The history of Mexicanmestizomusic dates back to the mid-nineteenth century arrival of piston brass instruments, when communities tried to imitate military bands.

Cuisine

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Mestizocuisine combines produce such as corn, chili peppers, tomatoes, potatoes and fruits and brushes from the Americas with meat and produce from Europe such as beef and chicken, wheat, and many old world fruits. Prior to European contact, only meats such as turkeys, deer,quailand fish were consumed. Europe introduced other meats (such as pork, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese and milk), and rice into Mexican cuisine.

AfricanandAsian influencesalso minimally influencedMexican cuisine.[51]

Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure, and popular traditions ofmestizoMexico. An example of this blended cuisine is the use ofmolefor special occasions and holidays throughout the country. Traditional Mexican cuisine was added toUNESCO'sRepresentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityin 2010.[52]

Notable Mexicanmestizos

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See also

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References and footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^abcden el censo de 1930 el gobierno mexicano dejó de clasificar a la población del país en tres categorías raciales, blanco, mestizo e indígena, y adoptó una nueva clasificación étnica que distinguía a los hablantes de lenguas indígenas del resto de la población, es decir de los hablantes de español.Archived2013-08-23 at theWayback Machine
  2. ^abKnight, Alan (1990)."Racism, Revolution andindigenismo:Mexico 1910–1940 ".In Graham, Richard (ed.).The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940.Austin: University of Texas Press. pp.73.ISBN978-0-292-73856-0.
  3. ^abBartolomé, Miguel Alberto (1996)."Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México"(PDF).Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas.Oaxaca: IOC. p. 5.ISBN978-968-6951-31-8.
  4. ^"El impacto del mestizaje en México","Investigación y Ciencia", Spain, October 2013. Retrieved on 01 June 2017.
  5. ^abLizcano Fernández, Francisco (August 2005)."Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI"[Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century].Convergencia(in Spanish).12(38): 185–232.
  6. ^"Informe Latinobarómetro 2018".Latinobarometro.RetrievedJune 10,2023– via SPSS output:Image 1,Image 2.{{cite web}}:External link in|via=(help)
  7. ^Martínez-Cortés, Gabriela; Salazar-Flores, Joel; Gabriela Fernández-Rodríguez, Laura; Rubi-Castellanos, Rodrigo; Rodríguez-Loya, Carmen; Velarde-Félix, Jesús Salvador; Franciso Muñoz-Valle, José; Parra-Rojas, Isela; Rangel-Villalobos, Héctor (September 2012)."Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages".Journal of Human Genetics.57(9): 568–574.doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.67.ISSN1435-232X.PMID22832385.S2CID2876124.
  8. ^"Mexico- Ethnic groups".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved1 October2016.
  9. ^abcdBartolomé, Miguel Alberto (1996)."Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México"(PDF).Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas.Oaxaca: IOC. p. 2.ISBN978-968-6951-31-8.
  10. ^Federico Navarrete (2016).Mexico Racista.Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86.ISBN978-607-31-4364-6.RetrievedFebruary 23,2018.
  11. ^abc"El mestizaje en Mexico"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2017-08-01.Retrieved2017-06-20.
  12. ^San Miguel, G. (November 2000)."Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792"[To be 'mestizo' in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792].Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy(in Spanish) (13): 325–342.
  13. ^Sherburne Friend Cook; Woodrow Borah (1998).Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2.Siglo XXI. p. 223.ISBN978-968-23-0106-3.RetrievedSeptember 12,2017.
  14. ^abLerner, Victoria (1968). "Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793–1810): Según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega" [Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793–1810): According to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega].Historia Mexicana(in Spanish).17(3): 327–348.JSTOR25134694.
  15. ^Giraudo, Laura (14 June 2018)."Casta(s), 'sociedad de castas' e indigenismo: la interpretación del pasado colonial en el siglo XX"[Casta(s), the 'society of castes' and indigenismo: the interpretation of the colonial past in the 20th century].Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos(in Spanish).doi:10.4000/nuevomundo.72080.hdl:10261/167130.
  16. ^Navarrete, Federico."El mestizaje y las culturas"[Mixed race and cultures].México Multicultural(in Spanish). Mexico:UNAM.Archived fromthe originalon 2013-08-23.RetrievedJuly 19,2011.
  17. ^Moreno Figueroa, Mónica G. (August 2016)."El archivo del estudio del racismo en México"[An Archive of the Study of Racism in Mexico].Desacatos(in Spanish) (51): 92–107.
  18. ^Federico Navarrete (2016).Mexico Racista.Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 89.ISBN978-607-31-4364-6.RetrievedFebruary 23,2018.
  19. ^Jiménez, Arturo (8 August 2011)."El Estado no reconoce a los afromexicanos; con los indígenas, son los más discriminados"[The State does not recognize Afro-Mexicans; with indigenous people, they are the most discriminated against].La Jornada(in Spanish).
  20. ^Salazar-Flores, J.; Zuñiga-Chiquette, F.; Rubi-Castellanos, R.; Álvarez-Miranda, J.L.; Zetina-Hérnandez, A.; Martínez-Sevilla, V.M.; González-Andrade, F.; Corach, D.; Vullo, C.; Álvarez, J.C.; Lorente, J.A.; Sánchez-Diz, P.; Herrera, R.J.; Cerda-Flores, R.M.; Muñoz-Valle, J.F.; Rangel-Villalobos, H. (2015)."Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRS".Homo.66(1): 44–59.doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005.hdl:11336/15953.PMID25435058.
  21. ^Price, Alkes L.; Patterson, Nick; Yu, Fuli; Cox, David R.; Waliszewska, Alicja; McDonald, Gavin J.; Tandon, Arti; Schirmer, Christine; Neubauer, Julie; Bedoya, Gabriel; Duque, Constanza; Villegas, Alberto; Bortolini, Maria Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Gallo, Carla; Mazzotti, Guido; Tello-Ruiz, Marcela; Riba, Laura; Aguilar-Salinas, Carlos A.; Canizales-Quinteros, Samuel; Menjivar, Marta; Klitz, William; Henderson, Brian; Haiman, Christopher A.; Winkler, Cheryl; Tusie-Luna, Teresa; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Reich, David (June 2007)."A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations".The American Journal of Human Genetics.80(6): 1024–1036.doi:10.1086/518313.PMC1867092.PMID17503322.
  22. ^"Chapter 2".Historia de Mexico, Legado Historico Y Pasado Reciente.Table 2.1: Pearson Educación. 2004.ISBN978-970-26-0523-2.RetrievedOctober 1,2016.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link)
  23. ^Schwartz-Marín, Ernesto; Silva-Zolezzi, Irma (December 2010)."'The Map of the Mexican's Genome': overlapping national identity, and population genomics ".Identity in the Information Society.3(3): 489–514.doi:10.1007/s12394-010-0074-7.hdl:10871/33766.S2CID144786737.
  24. ^Buentello-Malo, Leonora; Peñaloza-Espinosa, Rosenda I.; Salamanca-Gómez, Fabio; Cerda-Flores, Ricardo M. (2008). "Genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations: Based on five polymarker, HLA-DQA1, ABO, and RH loci".American Journal of Human Biology.20(6): 647–650.doi:10.1002/ajhb.20747.PMID18770527.S2CID28766515.
  25. ^Sosa-Macías, Martha; Elizondo, Guillermo; Flores-Pérez, Carmen; Flores-Pérez, Janet; Bradley-Alvarez, Francisco; Alanis-Bañuelos, Ruth E.; Lares-Asseff, Ismael (May 2006). "CYP2D6 Genotype and Phenotype in Amerindians of Tepehuano Origin and Mestizos of Durango, Mexico".The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.46(5): 527–536.doi:10.1177/0091270006287586.PMID16638736.S2CID41443294.
  26. ^Valdez-Velazquez, Laura L.; Mendoza-Carrera, Francisco; Perez-Parra, Sandra A.; Rodarte-Hurtado, Katia; Sandoval-Ramirez, Lucila; Montoya-Fuentes, Héctor; Quintero-Ramos, Antonio; Delgado-Enciso, Ivan; Montes-Galindo, Daniel A.; Gomez-Sandoval, Zeferino; Olivares, Norma; Rivas, Fernando (16 December 2010)."Renin gene haplotype diversity and linkage disequilibrium in two Mexican and one German population samples".Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System.12(3): 231–237.doi:10.1177/1470320310388440.PMID21163863.S2CID26481247.
  27. ^Martinez-Fierro, Margarita L; Beuten, Joke; Leach, Robin J; Parra, Esteban J; Cruz-Lopez, Miguel; Rangel-Villalobos, Hector; Riego-Ruiz, Lina R; Ortiz-Lopez, Rocio; Martinez-Rodriguez, Herminia G; Rojas-Martinez, Augusto (September 2009)."Ancestry informative markers and admixture proportions in northeastern Mexico".Journal of Human Genetics.54(9): 504–509.doi:10.1038/jhg.2009.65.PMID19680268.S2CID13714976.
  28. ^Cerda-Flores, Ricardo; Kshatriya, Gautam; Barton, Sara; Leal-Garza, Carlos; Garza-Chapa, Raul; Schull, William; Chakraborty, Ranajit (27 January 2014)."Genetic Structure of the Populations Migrating from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico".Human Biology.63(3): 309–27.JSTOR41464178.PMID2055589.
  29. ^Luna-Vazquez, A; Vilchis-Dorantes, G; Paez-Riberos, L.A; Muñoz-Valle, F; González-Martin, A; Rangel-Villalobos, H (September 2003). "Population data of nine STRs of Mexican-Mestizos from Mexico City".Forensic Science International.136(1–3): 96–98.doi:10.1016/s0379-0738(03)00254-8.PMID12969629.
  30. ^abcLisker, Rubén; Ramírez, Eva; González-Villalpando, Clicerio; Stern, Michael P. (1995). "Racial admixture in a Mestizo population from Mexico City".American Journal of Human Biology.7(2): 213–216.doi:10.1002/ajhb.1310070210.PMID28557218.S2CID8177392.
  31. ^J.K. Estrada; A. Hidalgo-Miranda; I. Silva-Zolezzi; G. Jimenez-Sanchez."Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico".ASHG. Archived fromthe originalon 13 September 2014.Retrieved18 July2012.
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