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Middle Eastern cuisine

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A variety of foods on a sectioned plate
Serving in Jerusalem restaurant includingfalafel,hummus,and salad

Middle Eastern cuisineorWest Asian cuisineincludes a number of cuisines from the Middle East. Common ingredients includeolivesandolive oil,pitas,honey,sesame seeds,dates,[1]sumac,chickpeas,mint,riceandparsley,and popular dishes includekebabs,dolmas,falafel,baklava,yogurt,doner kebab,shawarmaandmulukhiyah.

Geography[edit]

Core countries considered to be part of the Middle East

The exact countries considered to be part of theMiddle Eastare difficult to determine as the definition has changed over time and from source to source.[2]Currently, the countries that are considered to comprise the Middle East are: Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Palestine, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, including the various ethnic, cultural, religious and ethno-linguistic groups within these nations.

Varieties[edit]

History and influences[edit]

A cook slices ingredients into a skillet
The TurkishDoner kebab

The Middle East incorporates theFertile Crescent,includingMesopotamia(Sumer,Akkad,AssyriaandBabylonia) wherewheatwas first cultivated, followed byrye,barley,lentils,beans,pistachios,figs,pomegranates,datesand other regional staples.[3]The domestication ofsheep,goatsandcattletook place in the region as well.Fermentationwas also discovered there, in order to leaven bread and make beer inAncient MesopotamiaandAncient Egypt[4]andMesopotamia.[5]Additionally, the earliest written recipes come from that region.

As a crossroad betweenEurope,North Africa,andAsia,it has been a hub of food and recipe exchange. During thefirst Persian Empire(ca. 550–330 BCE), the foundation was laid for modern Middle-Eastern food whenrice,poultryandfruitswere incorporated into the local diet. Figs, dates andnutswere brought by merchants to conquered lands, and spices were brought from theOrient.[6][1]

The region was also influenced bydumplingsfromMongol invaders;turmericand other spices from India;cloves,peppercornsandallspicefrom theSpice Islands;okrafrom Africa, andtomatoesfrom the New World.

Religion has impacted the cuisine by makinglambthe primary meat since both Jews and Muslims do not eatpork,although the cuisines of Christian peoples such as Assyrians, Armenians, Cypriots and Maronites can incorporate pork.[7]

TheQur'anforbids alcohol consumption, which is why non-Islamic countries produce and export alcohol. Prime example would bewinemade inLebanon,in vineyards such asChâteau Ksara,Chateau Kefraya[8]and Chateau Masaya[9]which have gained international recognition. Château Ksara is also known for itsarak ksarak.Al-Mazais Lebanon's primary brewery, and once it was the Middle East's only beer producer.Assyriancommunities in Iraq, Turkey and Syria have long produced their own Wheat Beer, Wine and Arak.

Before the 1979 change of regime,Iranwas noted for itswine production.[1][10]

Under theOttoman Empire,sweet pastries of paper-thinphyllodough and thickcoffeewere brought and introduced to the region.[11][12][13]

Elements[edit]

Grains[edit]

Grains are the basis of the Middle Eastern diet, wherewheatandriceare considered staple foods.Barleyis also widely used in the region, andmaizein addition has become common in some areas.Breadis a universal food eaten in some form by all classes at nearly every meal.

In addition to bread, wheat is also used inburghulandcouscous.Burghulis cracked wheat made by partially cooking wheat grains in water, drying them in an oven (or in the sun), and breaking them into pieces. It is typically cooked in water with flavorings, much like rice.

Burghulis also used in meat pies and as an ingredient in salads (notably intabboulehwith chopped parsley, tomato, lemon, and oil).Freekehis another common grain, made from immature green wheat.

Many types of rice are produced and consumed in the region. Plain rice is served under grilled meats or in meat and vegetable stews. More complex rice dishes have layers of meat, vegetables, sauces, nuts, or dried fruits.

Flavorings[edit]

Butterandclarified butter(also known assmen), also ghee, are traditionally the preferred oil to cook in. Also,olive oilis prevalent in Mediterranean coastal areas, whereChristiansuse it during theLentenand otherfastswhich disallow meat and dairy products.[14]andJewsuse it instead of animal fats (such as butter) to avoid combining meat and dairy products.

Most regions in the Middle East use spices. A typical stew will include a small amount ofcinnamon,nutmeg,cloves,cumin,andcoriander.Black pepperis popular andchili peppersare used occasionally, especially as a sauce or as pickles. Parsley and mint are widely used in cooking and in salads.

Thyme and thyme blends(za'atar) are common among Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel, in addition to a mixture of dried thyme andsumac(crushed sour berries) which is prevalent at breakfast with oil and bread. Sumac is also sprinkled over grilled meat andgarlicis frequently used in many dishes and salads.

Religious influence[edit]

Kabobs cooking on a grill
Kebab koobideh

Lamb and muttonare favored meats, sinceporkis prohibited by bothIslamicandJewishdietary laws,though Christian and other non Muslim or Jewish communities consume pork, andChickenis also common in many Middle Eastern cuisines.

Grilled meats (kebabs) are popular, with many regional varieties. The most popular is cubed lamb on skewers (shish kebab), and chicken that may also be grilled in the same fashion. Another extensive variety iskofta kebab,made fromground meatmixed with onions and spices, shaped around the skewer like a sausage and grilled.Kebabsare typically street or restaurant food, served with bread, salad and pickles, and are not usually prepared at home.

Meat and vegetable stews are served with rice,bulgur,or bread.Kibbehis a pie (or dumpling) made with meat and cereal.

The most popularkibbehis made with ground meat (typically lamb) andburghul,worked together into a dough and stuffed with minced meat fried with onion, herbs and sometimes pine nuts, or almonds and raisins, prepared as individual small dumplings (shaped like a torpedo) or sliced like a cake and baked on an oven tray with two layers of stuffed dough.

Another variation ofkibbehiskibbeh naye,made by pounding raw meat andburghulwith seasonings, served with lemon juice and chili sauce for dipping.

Kibbeh nayyeh

Vegetables[edit]

A large display of pickled vegetables
Tursuare pickled vegetables served in manyBalkanand Middle East countries

Vegetables andpulsesare staple foods, and are boiled, stewed, grilled, stuffed, and cooked with meat and rice.Leaf vegetablesinclude many varieties ofcabbage,spinach,andchard.Root vegetables,such asonions,garlic,carrots,turnips,andbeets,are also popular in the region.

Squash,tomato,eggplant,andokraare distinctive elements of the region's cuisine. Eggplant is often sliced, fried and dressed with yogurt and garlic.Baba ghanoushis eggplant roasted over an open fire, mashed and dressed withtahini(sesame paste), lemon juice, garlic, and cumin.

Tomato is the most ubiquitous ingredient in Middle-Eastern cookery, used fresh in salads, cooked in stews and broth, and grilled withkebab.

Beans and pulses are crucial to the regional diet, second only to cereals.Fava beansare eaten both green and dried. Dried fava beans are boiled intoful medames,one of the most popular Egyptian domestic and street foods. As for mashed fava beans, they are dressed with oil, lemon, and chili. Similar dishes are found throughout the region.

Ful medamesserved with sliced hard-boiledeggs

Falafel,which is popular in Europe and the United States, was originally made from dried fava beans formed into arissolewith herbs and spices and then fried. It is also made fromchickpeas,or a blend of the two. Green fava are cooked like other green beans, boiled and dressed with oil orstewedwith meat.Haricotsandblack-eyed peasare also well-known.

Lentils,split peasand chickpeas are widely used in soups and salads, with rice or meat.Hummus,made from chickpeas andtahini

Dishes[edit]

A large, round tray with a variety of small dishes
Mezeis a selection of small dishes served with alcoholic drinks, as acourseor asappetizersinArab countries,Turkic countries, andIran.

Stuffed vegetables, a dish associated with Middle Eastern cuisine, is commonly calleddolma(Turkishfor "stuffed" ) ormahshi.Grape leaves, chard, and cabbage are stuffed with rice, ground meat, pine nuts and spices, and stewed in oil and tomatoes. Many vegetables, such as squash, onion, tomato, eggplant, peppers and carrots, are similarly stuffed and stewed (or baked).

Mezeis popular throughout the Middle East. It consists of several small dishes (cheese, melon, nuts, salads and dips such astabbouleh,hummusandmutabbal,and pickles) and more substantial items, such as grilled meat,kibbeh,andsausage.[citation needed]

Middle Easterners frequently consume milk, fresh orsoured.Yogurtis commonly consumed plain, also used in cooking as in salad dressing, or diluted as a drink. Greekfetaandhalloumiare the region's most popular cheeses.

Beverages[edit]

Turkish coffee being poured into a small cup
Turkish coffee

Turkish coffeeis a beverage well known internationally.[15]Thicker than other coffee, it is made by boiling finely-ground coffee in water and letting the grounds settle. During the 1980s, instant coffee became popular. The simple drink of coffee may serve the sole purpose of caffeine to many; however, it serves a multitude of traditional and cultural purposes in Iraq. Oftentimes, peace between families, marriage proposals, and significant life events are initiated by the serving of coffee.[16]

Arakis a distilled,anise-flavoredalcoholic drink, usually diluted with water and ice, and served in social gatherings withmeze.[17]

SomeChristians,such as theAssyrians,Armenians,Cypriots,andMaronitesmake their ownbeerandwine.[18]

Qamar al-Din,a thick, sweet apricot beverage, is drunk byMuslimsduringRamadan.Apricots are boiled with sugar and water until they are thick, and sun-dried on wooden planks. Thedried fruitis then mixed with water and sugar.[19]

Jallabis a fruit syrup made from grape molasses, dates androse waterserved over crushed ice, sometimes with raisins or pine nuts.[20]

Doogh(orayran) is a salted, yogurt-based beverage which is popular in Turkey and Iran.

Dining etiquette[edit]

See also:Etiquette in the Middle East

Arab countries[edit]

In some Arab countries, especially in thePersian Gulf region,it is common for diners to take their food from a communal plate in the center of the table. They traditionally do not use forks or spoons; instead they scoop up the food withpitaor a thumb and two fingers.

InArabic culture,the left hand is considered unclean and even left-handed people eat with the right hand. A common exception, however, is that the left hand may hold a drinking glass when eating greasy food with the right.[21]

It is proper etiquette to compliment the host on their food and hospitality, and to try every plate on the table. If a guest does not leave food on his plate, the host generally fills it immediately.

Ramadan[edit]

DuringRamadan,food consumption increases dramatically in Muslim communities. Breaking the daily sunrise-to-sunset fast is a banquet with family and friends whereas public banquets are held by charities and other associations.

Cafes and pastry shops are open at night, and the streets have a carnival atmosphere. Many Muslims, followingMuhammad's reported example, break their fast with a date followed by a variety of dishes. Sweet pastries and puddings are always present on Ramadan nights.

The end of Ramadan is marked byEid al-Fitr,featuring a great quantity and variety of sweets and pastries.

The other major Muslim feast is the four-dayEid al-Adha,the Feast of the Sacrifice, which occurs duringDhu al-Hijjah(thepilgrimagemonth). An animal (usually a sheep or goat) is slaughtered in every household that can afford it, great banquets are prepared, and food is given to the poor.[7]

Turkey[edit]

Tea is usually served in curved glasses which are held by the lip to which water may be added. A cup of tea may be refilled if it is less than half full. An honored guest is expected to make atoast,usually soon after the host does or at the end of the meal.

Forks, spoons and knives are used. Sometimes, the knife is held in the right hand and the fork in the left, presenting the British-style. Smoking may be acceptable between courses of a dinner.[12][1]

In formal situations and with more traditionalist company, the hosts sit at the head of the table, with the honored guest next to them on the side of the table which is farthest from the door.

The honored guest is served first, and then it's customary to serve from elder guests to younger, with a bias in favour of men. Diners do not begin eating until the oldest person at the table begins eating.

In some informal restaurants, dishes are ordered when desired (not all at once at the beginning of a meal). At informal restaurants a table may be shared, but diners are not required to converse.

Guests may be required to remove their shoes. It is customary to sayAfiyet olsun( "May what you eat bring well-being" ) before or after eating, and to sayElinize sağlik( "Bless your hand", a compliment for the manual, i.e. "hand" labour involved in cooking) to whoever prepared the meal after a meal.[12]

Iraq[edit]

The working people of Iraq choose to start the day off with kahi, a food originated from Jewish Babylonian culture,[22]which is made of thin pastry dough.

Iran[edit]

Iranian dishes and foods are known for being rice-based and Iran has been popular for its wide rice production.[23]Dishes are typically served as savory or sweet, rather than in courses.

In traditional Iranian restaurants, a large, low table lined with Persian rugs and with cushions around the sides is the setting for a meal. Diners sit cross-legged in a circle and food is served in the center (eaten withcutleryon separate plates). Tea is served inkamar baareek( "narrow-waist" ) glasses with sugar and Persian sweets.

When entertaining dinner guests at home, it is seen as discourteous to serve just enough food, so food is prepared in large quantities. An important Persian practice istaarof(ritual politeness) where if a person is offered food or drink, they will initially politely decline. Only after the host has offered repeatedly, it is accepted and that is to avoid appearing greedy.[24]

Globalization[edit]

In 2017, Middle-Eastern cuisine was reportedly one of the most popular and fastest-growing ethnic cuisines in theUS.[25]Dishes such ashummusandfalafelare becoming increasingly common in restaurants across the United States.[26]

Middle-Eastern cuisine is often misrepresented as simply interchangeable withMediterranean foodin Western markets.[27]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcd"The Middle East: Background & History".Archived fromthe originalon 26 May 2017.Retrieved20 November2014.
  2. ^"Where Is the Middle East? | Center for Middle East and Islamic Studies".Retrieved2020-10-13.
  3. ^"Middle Eastern Cuisine Makes its Move".QSR magazine.Retrieved2020-08-11.
  4. ^Beer in Ancient Egypt
  5. ^Brewing up ancient beer
  6. ^Hennessy, April 2018 Maggie."Middle Eastern Cuisine is Ready for its Moment".FSR magazine.Retrieved2020-08-11.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  7. ^abMcLoughlin, Paul (28 November 2018)."The Culinary Crescent: Taking a trip through the history of Middle Eastern cuisine".alaraby.Retrieved2020-08-11.
  8. ^"Château Kefraya: A terroir, a soul, a great wine".www.chateaukefraya.com.Retrieved2021-04-25.
  9. ^"Home".Massaya.Retrieved2021-04-25.
  10. ^Middle Eastern cuisines: gain ground.Bnet UK. January 2003
  11. ^"Reviving the forgotten flavours of the Ottoman palace kitchen".Middle East Eye.Retrieved2020-06-30.
  12. ^abcHale, William Harlan (1968).The Horizon Cookbook and Illustrated History of Eating and Drinking though the Ages.American Heritage Publishing.
  13. ^Davidson, Alan (2006).Oxford Companion to Food.Oxford University Press.
  14. ^"Chicago Tribune".Chicago Tribune.
  15. ^Bila, Sibel Utku (2015-08-20)."After 500 years, Turkish coffee percolates in popularity".Al-Monitor.Retrieved2021-03-10.
  16. ^Salman, Raheem; Parker, Ned; Times, Los Angeles (2011-07-04)."Coffee percolates through Iraq's cultural history".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved2023-05-02.
  17. ^Arak: Middle Eastern Alcoholic BeverageArchived2011-06-26 at theWayback Machine,About.com,
  18. ^"In pictures: Turkey's Assyrian wine-makers".BBC News.
  19. ^"Devour Blog: Qamar El Deen".Retrieved20 November2014.
  20. ^Mayssam Samaha."Jallab – A Refreshingly Sweet Summer Drink – Honest Cooking".Honest Cooking. Archived fromthe originalon 1 May 2013.Retrieved20 November2014.
  21. ^Getcustoms.comArchivedSeptember 22, 2010, at theWayback Machine
  22. ^"Shabu'oth - Ashk: Shavuot/Shavuos information".www.midrash.org.Retrieved2023-05-02.
  23. ^Karizaki, Vahid Mohammadpour (2016-06-01)."Ethnic and traditional Iranian rice-based foods".Journal of Ethnic Foods.3(2): 124–134.doi:10.1016/j.jef.2016.05.002.ISSN2352-6181.
  24. ^Slackman, Michael (2006-08-06)."The Fine Art of Hiding What You Mean to Say (Published 2006)".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved2021-03-10.
  25. ^"How Middle Eastern Cuisine Became The 'It' Food Of 2017".The RushOrder Blog.2017-12-05. Archived fromthe originalon 2017-12-14.Retrieved2017-12-14.
  26. ^"Middle East Meets Middle America".www.ift.org.Retrieved2021-03-10.
  27. ^"Middle Eastern Cuisine Makes its Move".QSR magazine.Retrieved2021-03-10.

External links[edit]

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