Military technology

Military technologyis the application of technology for use inwarfare.It comprises the kinds of technology that are distinctly military in nature and not civilian in application, usually because they lack useful or legal civilian applications, or are dangerous to use without appropriatemilitary training.

The line is porous;military inventionshave been brought into civilian use throughout history, with sometimes minor modification if any, and civilian innovations have similarly been put to military use.^[1]

Military technology is usually researched and developed byscientistsand engineers specifically for use in battle by the armed forces. Many new technologies came as a result of themilitary funding of science.

Armament engineeringis the design, development, testing and lifecycle management of military weapons and systems. It draws on the knowledge of several traditional engineering disciplines, includingmechanical engineering,electrical engineering,mechatronics,electro-optics,aerospace engineering,materials engineering,andchemical engineering.

History[edit]

This section is divided into the broad cultural developments that affected military technology.

Ancient technology[edit]

The first use of stone tools may have begun during thePaleolithicPeriod. The earliest stone tools are from the site of Lomekwi, Turkana, dating from 3.3 million years ago. Stone tools diversified through thePleistocenePeriod, which ended ~12,000 years ago.^[2] The earliest evidence of warfare between two groups is recorded at the site ofNatarukin Turkana, Kenya, where human skeletons with major traumatic injuries to the head, neck, ribs, knees and hands, including an embedded obsidian bladelet on a skull, are evidence of inter-group conflict between groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers 10,000 years ago.^[3]

Humans entered theBronze Ageas they learned to smelt copper into an alloy with tin to make weapons. In Asia where copper-tin ores are rare, this development was delayed until trading in bronze began in the third millenniumBCE.In the Middle East and Southern European regions, the Bronze Age follows theNeolithicperiod, but in other parts of the world, theCopper Ageis a transition from Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Although the Iron Age generally follows the Bronze Age, in some areas theIron Ageintrudes directly on the Neolithic from outside the region, with the exception of Sub-Saharan Africa where it was developed independently.^[4]

The first large-scale use of iron weapons began in Asia Minor around the 14th century BCE and in Central Europe around the 11th century BCE followed by the Middle East (about 1000 BCE) and India and China.^[5]

TheAssyriansare credited with the introduction of horse cavalry in warfare and the extensive use of iron weapons by 1100 BCE. Assyrians were also the first to use iron-tipped arrows.^[5]

Post-classical technology[edit]

An ink on paper diagram of a trebuchet. A long arm with a spherical cap rests on top of a large square platform. The square platform is supported by four plain cut square beams, which connect to an open undercarriage. Rope hangs between the end of the pole that does not have the cap to the inside of the undercarriage, as far away from the start of the rope as possible. The assembly moves on four wheels attached to the sides of the undercarriage. — An illustration of atrebuchetcatapult, as described in theWujing Zongyaoof 1044.

TheWujing Zongyao(Essentials of the Military Arts), written by Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and others at the order ofEmperor Renzongaround 1043 during theSong dynastyillustrate the eras focus on advancing intellectual issues and military technology due to the significance of warfare between the Song and the Liao, Jin, and Yuan to their north. The book covers topics of military strategy, training, and the production and employment of advanced weaponry.^[6]

Advances in military technology aided theSong dynastyin its defense against hostile neighbors to the north. Theflamethrowerfound its origins inByzantine-eraGreece,employingGreek fire(a chemically complex, highlyflammablepetrol fluid) in a device with asiphonhose by the 7th century.^[7]^: 77The earliest reference to Greek Fire in China was made in 917, written byWu Renchenin hisSpring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms.^[7]^: 80In 919, the siphon projector-pump was used to spread the 'fierce fire oil' that could not be doused with water, as recorded by Lin Yu in hisWuyue Beishi,hence the first credible Chinese reference to the flamethrower employing the chemical solution of Greek fire (see alsoPen Huo Qi).^[7]^: 81Lin Yu mentioned also that the 'fierce fire oil' derived ultimately from one of China's maritime contacts in the 'southern seas',ArabiaDashiguo.^[7]^: 82In theBattle of Langshan Jiangin 919, the naval fleet of theWenmu KingfromWuyuedefeated aHuainanarmy from theWu state;Wenmu's success was facilitated by the use of 'fire oil' ('huoyou') to burn their fleet, signifying the first Chinese use ofgunpowderin a battle.^[7]^: 81–83The Chinese applied the use of double-piston bellowsto pump petrol out of a single cylinder (with an upstroke and downstroke), lit at the end by a slow-burning gunpowder match to fire a continuous stream of flame.^[7]^: 82This device was featured in description and illustration of theWujing Zongyaomilitary manuscript of 1044.^[7]^: 82In the suppression of theSouthern Tangstate by 976, early Song naval forces confronted them on the Yangtze River in 975. Southern Tang forces attempted to use flamethrowers against the Song navy, but were accidentally consumed by their own fire when violent winds swept in their direction.^[7]^: 89

Although the destructive effects of gunpowder were described in the earlierTang dynastyby aDaoist alchemist,the earliest developments of the gun barrel and the projectile-firecannonwere found in late Song China. The first art depiction of the Chinese 'fire lance' (a combination of a temporary-fire flamethrower and gun) was from a Buddhist mural painting ofDunhuang,dated circa 950.^[8]These 'fire-lances' were widespread in use by the early 12th century, featuring hollowed bamboo poles as tubes to fire sand particles (to blind and choke), lead pellets, bits of sharp metal and pottery shards, and finally large gunpowder-propelled arrows androcketweaponry.^[7]^{: 220–221}Eventually, perishable bamboo was replaced with hollow tubes of cast iron, and so too did the terminology of this new weapon change, from 'fire-spear'huo qiangto 'fire-tube'huo tong.^[7]^: 221This ancestor to the gun was complemented by the ancestor to the cannon, what the Chinese referred to since the 13th century as the 'multiple bullets magazine erupter'bai zu lian zhu pao,a tube of bronze or cast iron that was filled with about 100 lead balls.^[7]^{: 263–264}

The earliest known depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave inSichuan,dating to 1128, that portrays a figure carrying a vase-shapedbombard,firing flames and a cannonball.^[9]However, the oldest existentarchaeologicaldiscovery of a metal barrel handgun is from the ChineseHeilongjiangexcavation, dated to 1288.^[7]^: 293The Chinese also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed cannonball shells with gunpowder. Written later byJiao Yuin hisHuolongjing(mid-14th century), this manuscript recorded an earlier Song-era cast-iron cannon known as the 'flying-cloud thunderclap eruptor' (fei yun pi-li pao). The manuscript stated that:

As noted before, the change in terminology for these new weapons during the Song period were gradual. The early Song cannons were at first termed the same way as the Chinesetrebuchet catapult.A laterMing dynastyscholar known asMao Yuanyiwould explain this use of terminology and true origins of the cannon in his text of theWubei Zhi,written in 1628:

The 14th-centuryHuolongjingwas also one of the first Chinese texts to carefully describe to the use of explosiveland mines,which had been used by the late Song Chinese against the Mongols in 1277, and employed by theYuan dynastyafterwards. The innovation of the detonated land mine was accredited to one Luo Qianxia in the campaign of defense against the Mongol invasion byKublai Khan,^[7]^: 192Later Chinese texts revealed that the Chinese land mine employed either a rip cord or a motionbooby trapof a pin releasing falling weights that rotated a steelflint wheel,which in turn created sparks that ignited the train offusesfor the land mines.^[7]^: 199Furthermore, the Song employed the earliest known gunpowder-propelledrocketsin warfare during the late 13th century,^[7]^: 477its earliest form being the archaicFire Arrow.When the Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell to the Jurchens in 1126, it was written by Xia Shaozeng that 20,000 fire arrows were handed over to the Jurchens in their conquest. An even earlier Chinese text of theWujing Zongyao( "Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques" ), written in 1044 by the Song scholars Zeng Kongliang and Yang Weide, described the use of three spring or triple bowarcuballistathat fired arrow bolts holding gunpowder packets near the head of the arrow.^[7]^: 154Going back yet even farther, theWu Li Xiao Shi(1630, second edition 1664) of Fang Yizhi stated that fire arrows were presented toEmperor Taizu of Song(r. 960–976) in 960.^[10]

Modern technology[edit]

Armies[edit]

The Islamicgunpowder empiresintroduced numerous developed firearms, cannon and small arms. During the period ofProto-industrialization,newly invented weapons were seen to be used inMughal India.

Rapid development in military technology had a dramatic impact on armies and navies in the industrialized world in 1740–1914.^[12]For land warfare, cavalry faded in importance, while infantry became transformed by the use of highly accurate more rapidly loading rifles, and the use of smokeless powder. Machine guns were developed in the 1860s in Europe.Rocket artilleryand theMysorean rockets,both pioneered by Indian MuslimTipu Sultan,became more powerful as new high explosives (based on nitroglycerin) arrived during theAnglo-Mysore Wars^{[dubious–discuss]},and the French introduced much more accurate rapid-fire field artillery. Logistics and communications support for land warfare dramatically improved with use of railways and telegraphs. Industrialization provided a base of factories that could be converted to produce munitions, as well as uniforms, tents, wagons and essential supplies. Medical facilities were enlarged and reorganized based on improved hospitals and the creation of modern nursing, typified byFlorence Nightingalein Britain during theCrimean Warof 1854–56.^[13]

Naval[edit]

Naval warfare was transformed by many innovations,^[14]most notably the coal-based steam engine, highly accurate long-range naval guns, heavy steel armour for battleships, mines, and the introduction of the torpedo, followed by the torpedo boat and the destroyer. Coal after 1900 was eventually displaced by more efficient oil, but meanwhile navies with an international scope had to depend on a network of coaling stations to refuel. The British Empire provided them in abundance, as did the French Empire to a lesser extent. War colleges developed, as military theory became a specialty; cadets and senior commanders were taught the theories of Jomini, Clausewitz and Mahan, and engaged in tabletop war games. Around 1900, entirely new innovations such as submarines and airplanes appeared, and were quickly adapted to warfare by 1914. The BritishHMSDreadnought(1906)incorporated so much of the latest technology in weapons, propulsion and armour that it at a stroke made all other battleships obsolescent.^[15]

Organization and finance[edit]

New financial tools were developed to fund the rapidly increasing costs of warfare, such as popular bond sales and income taxes, and the funding of permanent research centers.^[16]^[17]Many 19th century innovations were largely invented and promoted by lone individuals with small teams of assistants, such asDavid Bushnelland the submarine,John Ericssonand the battleship,Hiram Maximand the machine gun, andAlfred Nobeland high explosives. By 1900 the military began to realize that they needed to rely much more heavily on large-scale research centers, which needed government funding.^[18]They brought in leaders of organized innovation such asThomas Edisonin the U.S. and chemistFritz Haberof theKaiser Wilhelm Institutein Germany.^[19]^[20]

Postmodern technology[edit]

The postmodern stage of military technology emerged in the 1940s, and one with recognition thanks to the high priority given during the war to scientific and engineering research and development regarding nuclear weapons, radar, jet engines, proximity fuses, advanced submarines, aircraft carriers, and other weapons. The high-priority continues into the 21st century.^[21]It involves the military application of advanced scientific research regarding nuclear weapons, jet engines, ballistic and guided missiles, radar, biological warfare, and the use of electronics, computers and software.^[22]^[23]

Space[edit]

During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers – theSoviet Unionand the United States of America – spent large proportions of their GDP on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started theSpace Race.In 1957, the USSR launched the firstartificial satellite,Sputnik 1.

By the end of the 1960s, both countries regularly deployed satellites.Spy satelliteswere used by militaries to take accurate pictures of their rivals' military installations. As time passed the resolution and accuracy of orbital reconnaissance alarmed both sides of theIron Curtain.Both the United States and the Soviet Union began to developanti-satellite weaponsto blind or destroy each other's satellites.Laserweapons,kamikazestyle satellites, as well as orbital nuclear explosion were researched with varying levels of success. Spy satellites were, and continue to be, used to monitor the dismantling of military assets in accordance with arms control treaties signed between the two superpowers. To use spy satellites in such a manner is often referred to in treaties as "national technical means of verification".

The superpowers developedballistic missilesto enable them to usenuclear weaponryacross great distances. As rocket science developed, the range of missiles increased andintercontinental ballistic missiles(ICBM) were created, which could strike virtually any target on Earth in a timeframe measured in minutes rather than hours or days. To cover large distances ballistic missiles are usually launched intosub-orbital spaceflight.

Test of theLG-118A Peacekeepermissile, each one of which could carry 10 independently targetednuclear warheadsalong trajectories outside of theEarth's atmosphere.

As soon as intercontinental missiles were developed, military planners began programmes and strategies to counter their effectiveness.

Mobilization[edit]

A significant portion of military technology is about transportation, allowing troops and weaponry to be moved from their origins to the front. Land transport has historically been mainly by foot, land vehicles have usually been used as well, from chariots to tanks.

When conducting a battle over a body of water, ships are used. There are historically two main categories of ships: those for transporting troops, and those for attacking other ships.

Soon after the invention of aeroplanes, military aviation became a significant component of warfare, though usually as a supplementary role. The two main types of military aircraft are bombers, which attack land- or sea-based targets, and fighters, which attack other aircraft.

Military vehiclesare land combat or transportation vehicles, excluding rail-based, which are designed for or in significant use by military forces.

Military aircraftincludes any use of aircraft by a country's military, including such areas as transport, training, disaster relief, border patrol, search and rescue, surveillance, surveying, peacekeeping, and (very rarely) aerial warfare.

Warshipsare watercraft for combat and transportation in and on seas and oceans.

Submarines
Complexmasting and sail systemsfound on warships during theAge of Sail
List of historical ship and boat types
List of aircraft carriers
List of submarine classes

Defence[edit]

Fortificationsare military constructions and buildings designed for defence in warfare. They range in size and age from the Great Wall of China to a Sangar.

Sensors and communication[edit]

Sensors and communication systems are used to detect enemies, coordinate movements of armed forces and guide weaponry. Early systems included flag signaling, telegraph and heliographs.

Future technology[edit]

TheDefense Advanced Research Projects Agencyis an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technologies for use by the military. DARPA leads the development of military technology in the United States and today, has dozens of ongoing projects; everything from humanoid robots to bullets that can change path before reaching their target. China has a similar agency.

Emerging territory[edit]

Current militaries continue to invest in new technologies for the future.^[24]Such technologies include cognitive radar, 5g cellular networks,^[25]microchips, semiconductors, and large scale analytic engines.^[26]

Additionally, many militaries seek to improve current laser technology. For example, Israeli Defense Forces utilize laser technology to disable small enemy machinery, but seek to move to more large scale capabilities in the coming years.^[27]

Militaries across the world continue to perform research on autonomous technologies which allow for increased troop mobility or replacement of live soldiers.^[28]Autonomous vehicles and robots are expected to play a role in future conflicts;^[28]this has the potential to decrease loss of life in future warfare. Observers oftranshumanismnote high rates of technological terms in military literature, but low rates for explicitly transhuman-related terms.^[29]

Today's hybrid style of warfare also calls for investments in information technologies. Increased reliance on computer systems has incentivized nations to push for increased efforts at managing large scale networks and having access to large scale data.^[30]

New strategies of cyber and hybrid warfare includes, network attacks, media analysis, and media/ grass-roots campaigns on medias such as blog posts^[31]

Cyberspace[edit]

In 2011, the US Defense Department declared cyberspace a new domain of warfare; since then DARPA has begun a research project known as "Project X" with the goal of creating new technologies that will enable the government to better understand and map the cyber territory. Ultimately giving the Department of Defense the ability to plan and manage large-scale cyber missions across dynamic network environments.^[32]

References[edit]

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