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Minerva

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This article is about the Roman goddess. For other uses, seeMinerva (disambiguation).
Minerva
Goddess of poetry, medicine, commerce, weaving, the crafts, and wisdom
Member of theCapitoline Triadand theDii Consentes
Frescoof Minerva fromHerculaneum(1st century AD)
SymbolsOwl of Minerva,olive tree,serpentofJupiter,theParthenon,thespear,thespindle,andHellebore
GenderFemale
ParentsJupiter
Metis
Equivalents
Greek equivalentAthena
Etruscan equivalentMenrva
Canaanite equivalentAnat[1]
Egyptian equivalentNeith
Celtic equivalentBrigantia
Religion in
ancient Rome
Marcus Aurelius sacrificing
Marcus Aurelius(head covered)
sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter
Practices and beliefs
Priesthoods
Deities
Related topics
Mosaic of theMinerva of Peacein theLibrary of Congress

Minerva(/məˈnɜːrvə/;Latin:[mɪˈnɛru̯ä];Etruscan:Menrva) is theRoman goddessofwisdom,justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She is also a goddess of warfare, though with a focus on strategic warfare, rather than the violence of gods such asMars.[2]Beginning in the second century BC, theRomansequatedher with the GreekgoddessAthena.[3]Minerva is one of the three Roman deities in theCapitoline Triad,along withJupiterandJuno.

Minerva is avirgingoddess. Her domain includes music,poetry,medicine,wisdom,commerce,weaving,and thecrafts.[4]Minerva is often depicted with her sacred creature, an owl usually named the "owl of Minerva".[5]which symbolised her association with wisdom and knowledge, as well as, less frequently, the snake and theolive tree.Minerva is commonly depicted as tall with an athletic and muscular build. She is often wearing armour and carrying a spear. As an important Roman goddess, she is highly revered, honored, and respected.[6]Marcus Terentius Varroconsidered her to be ideal and the plan for the universe personified.[7]

Etymology[edit]

The nameMinervastems fromProto-Italic*meneswo( "intelligent, understanding" ), and ultimately fromProto-Indo-European(PIE)*menos( "thought" ).Helmut Rix(1981) and Gerhard Meiser (1998) have proposed the PIE derivative*menes-ueh₂( "provided with a mind, intelligent" ) as the transitional form.[8]

Origin[edit]

The myth of Minerva's birth follows that of Athena. In it, Minerva was borne ofMetis,who had been swallowed byJupiter,and burst from her father's head, fully armed and clad in armour.[9]

Jupiter had sex with thetitanessMetis, which resulted in her attempting to change shape (orshapeshift) to escape him. Jupiter then recalled the prophecy that his own child would overthrow him, as he hadSaturn,and in turn, Saturn hadCaelus. Fearing that their child would be male, and would grow stronger than he was and rule the Heavens in his place, Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after tricking her into turning herself into a fly. The Titaness gave birth to Minerva and forged weapons and armour for her child while within Jupiter's body. In some versions of the story, Metis continued to live inside of Jupiter's mind as the source of his wisdom. Others say she was simply a vessel for the birth of Minerva. The constant pounding and ringing left Jupiter with agonizing pain. To relieve the pain,Vulcanused a hammer to split Jupiter's head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, whole, adult, and in full battle armour.

Presence in mythology[edit]

Minerva is a prominent figure inRoman mythology.She appears in many famous myths. Many of the stories of her Greek counterpartAthenaare attributed to Minerva in Roman mythology, such as that of the naming of Athens[10]resulting from a competition between Minerva andNeptune,[11]in which Minerva created the olive tree.[2]

Minerva and Arachne[edit]

Arachnewas a mortal highly proficient in weaving and embroidery. Not only were her finished works beautiful, but also her process, so much so thatnymphswould come out of their natural environments to watch her work. Arachne boasted that her skills could beat those of Minerva, and if she were wrong she would pay the price for it. This angered Minerva, and she took the form of an old woman to approach Arachne, offering her a chance to take back her challenge and ask forgiveness.[11]When Arachne refused, Minerva rid herself of her disguise and took Arachne up on her challenge. Arachne began to weave a tapestry that showed the shortcomings of the gods, while Minerva depicted her competition with Neptune and the gods looking down with disgust on mortals who would dare to challenge them.[11]Minerva's weaving was meant as a final warning to her foe to back down. Minerva was insulted by the scenes that Arachne was weaving, and destroyed it. She then touched Arachne on the forehead, which made her feel shame for what she had done, leading her to hang herself. Minerva then felt bad for the woman, and brought her back to life. However, Minerva transformed her into a spider as punishment for her actions, and hanging from a web would forever be a reminder to Arachne of her actions that offended the gods. This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods.[2]

Minerva and Medusa[edit]

Medusawas once a beautiful human, a priestess of Minerva. Later on, Minerva found out that Neptune and Medusa were kissing in a temple dedicated to Minerva herself. Because of this Minerva turned her into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm. Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone. WhenPerseusapproached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her.[10]He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on herAegis.[2]

Taming of Pegasus[edit]

WhenPerseusbeheadedMedusasome of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it camePegasus.Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to theMuses.It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus that opened the fountainHippocrene.[11]WhenBellerophonlater went to fight theChimerahe sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera.[2]

Painting of Minerva visiting the Muses

Turning Aglauros to stone[edit]

MetamorphosesbyOvidtell the story of Minerva andAglauros.WhenMercurycomes to seduce mortal virginHerse,her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance ofEnvy,who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that sheturns to stone.Mercury fails to seduce Herse.[11]

Minerva and Hercules[edit]

Minerva assisted the heroHercules.InHyginus'Fabulaeshe is said to have helped him kill theHydra(30.3).[10]

Minerva and Ulysses[edit]

Minerva assisted the heroUlysses.Hyginus describes in his workFabulaethat Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126).[10]

Inventing the flute[edit]

Minerva is thought to have invented thefluteby piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by asatyr.[12]

Worship in Rome and Italy[edit]

Fresco of Minerva (helmeted figure on right) from the Villa San Marco,Stabiae(1st century AD)
Raised-reliefimage of Minerva on a Roman gilt silver bowl, first century BC
Temple of Minerva inSbeitla,Tunisia
A head of "Sulis-Minerva" found in the ruins of theRoman baths in Bath
Silver denarius of the Roman Emperor Domitian dated c. 90 AD
Silver denarius of the Roman Emperor Domitianus (Domitian) featuring Minerva, datedc. 90 AD,IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM P M TR P VIIII, laureate head right; IMP XXI COS XV CENS P P P, Minerva standing left, holding spear and thunderbolt, shield resting against back of leg; References: BMC 167, RIC 691, RSC 260, Paris 159, Cohen 260

The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day that is called, in the neuter plural,Quinquatria,the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, anartisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts.[13]According toOvid(Fasti3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association.[14]Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated theQuinquatriaby appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions.[15]A lesser version, theMinusculae Quinquatria,was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by theflute-players,as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute.[12]In 207 BC, aguildof poets and actors was formed to meet and makevotive offeringsat the temple of Minerva on theAventine Hill.Among others, its members includedLivius Andronicus.The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middleRoman Republic.

AsMinerva Medica,she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. AsMinerva Achaea,she was worshipped atLucerainApuliawherevotive giftsand arms said to be those ofDiomedeswere preserved in her temple.[16][17]

According to theActa Arvalia,a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13 58 AD along with many other sacrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows.[18]

InFastiIII,Ovidcalled her the "goddess of a thousand works"[14]due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere.[19]

According toLivy'sHistory of Rome(7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail in to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers.[20][21]

There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level.[21]

Roman coinage[edit]

Minerva is featured on the coinage of differentRoman emperors.She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes.[22]

Worship in Roman Britain[edit]

Duringthe Roman occupation of Britain,it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings.[23]

Bath[edit]

During Roman rule, Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddessSulis,to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably.[23]She was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located inBath.[24]Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions asMinerva Medicashe could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath.[24]

Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing.[23]

The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire that burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood.[23]

Carrawburgh[edit]

There is evidence of worship of Minerva Medica inCarrawburghdue to archaeological evidence such as a relief depicting her andAesculapius.[24]

Chester[edit]

There is a shrine dedicated to Minerva in Edgar's Field built in the face of a quarry next to theRiver Dee.

Etruscan Menrva[edit]

Main article:Menrva

Stemming from an Italic moon goddess*Meneswā('She who measures'), theEtruscansadopted the inherited Old Latin name,*Menerwā,thereby calling herMenrva.It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on thisEtruscan mythology.Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, justice and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to GreekAthena.Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (GreekZeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth.

By a process offolk etymology,the Romans could have linked her foreign name to therootmen-inLatinwordssuch asmensmeaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The wordmensis built from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*men-'mind' (linked with memory as in GreekMnemosyne/μνημοσύνη andmnestis/μνῆστις: memory, remembrance, recollection,manushin Sanskrit meaning mind).

The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holytriadwithTiniaandUni,equivalent to the RomanCapitoline Triadof Jupiter-Juno-Minerva.

Modern depictions and references of Minerva[edit]

Societies and governments[edit]

Minerva as depicted on the United States ArmyMedal of Honor

Public monuments, and places[edit]

Frans Floris,Minerva,The Phoebus Foundation
Elizabeth Carterportrayed as Minerva
  • A statue of Minerva is the center of thePioneer MonumentinSan Francisco's Civic Centercreated byFrank Happersbergerin 1894.
  • A smallRoman shrine to Minervastands inHandbridge,Chester.It sits in a public park, overlooking theRiver Dee.
  • Animposing bronze statue of Minervastands on the rooftop of theCírculo de Bellas Artes,Madrid,Spain.[27]
  • A statue to Minerva was designed byJohn Charles Felix Rossito adorn the Town Hall ofLiverpool,where it has stood since 1799. It remains extant and was restored as part of the 2014 renovations conducted by the city.[28][29]
  • The Minerva Roundabout inGuadalajara, Mexico,located at the crossing of theLópez Mateos,Vallarta, López Cotilla,Agustín Yáñez,and Golfo de Cortez avenues, features the goddess standing on a pedestal, surrounded by a large fountain, with an inscription that says "Justice, wisdom and strength guard this loyal city".
  • A bronze statue of Minerva stands inMonument Square (Portland, Maine)."Our Lady of Victories Monument" dedicated in 1891, features a 14-feet-tall bronze figure byFranklin Simmonsatop a granite pedestal with smaller bronze sculptures byRichard Morris Hunt.[30][31]
  • A sculpture of Minerva byAndy Scott,known as the Briggate Minerva, stands outside Trinity Leeds shopping centre.
  • Minerva is displayed as a statue inPavia, Italy,near the train station, and is considered as an important landmark in the city.
  • Minerva is displayed as a cast bronze statue in theMinneapolis Central Library,rendered in 1889 byJakob Fjelde.[32]
  • Minerva is displayed as a bronze statue inFrederick Ruckstull's 1920Altar to Liberty: Minervamonument near the top of Battle Hill, the highest point of Brooklyn, New York, inGreen-Wood Cemetery.
  • Minerva is displayed as an 11-ft statue inJean-Antonin Carlès's 1895 "James Gordon Bennett Memorial" in New York City's Herald Square.[33]
  • A statue of Minerva is displayed atWells Collegeoutside of Main Building. Each year, the senior class decorates Minerva at the beginning of the fall semester. Minerva remains decorated throughout the school year; then during the morning of the last day of classes and after singing around the Sycamore tree, the senior class takes turns kissing the feet of Minerva, believed to be good luck and bring success and prosperity to all graduation seniors.[34][35][36]
  • A statue of Minerva stands atop the Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute inBallarat, Victoria, Australia.There is also a mosaic tile of Minerva in the foyer of the building as well as a whole theatre name after her, called the 'Minerva Space'.[37]
  • A bronze statue of Minerva stands on the campus of The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina. It was commissioned in 2003 by the Class of 1953 and created by sculptor James Barnhill.
  • A statue of Minerva releasing an owl stands at Manderson Landing Park in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The statue was gifted by the University of Alabama to the community in 2019 as a commemoration of the City of Tuscaloosa's bicentennial year.[38]Minerva also features on the University of Alabama's seal.

Literature[edit]

She is remembered inDe Mulieribus Claris,a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by theFlorentineauthorGiovanni Boccaccio,composed in 1361–62. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.[39]PoetElizabeth Carteris famously portrayed in an outfit inspired by Minerva, and also wrote poems in her honour.

References[edit]

  1. ^L. Day 1999,p.39.
  2. ^abcdeBulfinch, Thomas. (2010).The Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and Heroes.Neeland Media LLC.ISBN978-1-59625-257-8.OCLC1028955021.
  3. ^Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia,Book People,Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
  4. ^Candau, Francisco J. Cevallos (1994).Coded Encounters: Writing, Gender, and Ethnicity in Colonial Latin America.University of Massachusetts Press. p. 215.ISBN0-87023-886-8.
  5. ^Philosophy of Right(1820), "Preface"
  6. ^Fara, Patricia (2010-03-01)."Minerva/Athene".Endeavour.34(1): 4–5.doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2010.01.001.ISSN0160-9327.PMID20096932.
  7. ^Augustine, of Hippo, Saint, 354–430. (2008) [1950].The city of God.Catholic University of America Press.ISBN978-0-8132-1108-4.OCLC647919892.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  8. ^de Vaan 2008,pp. 380–381.
  9. ^Encarta World English Dictionary 1998–2004 Microsoft Corporation.
  10. ^abcdApollodorus; Hyginus (2007).Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology.Hackett Pub.ISBN978-0-87220-820-9.
  11. ^abcdeOvid, 43 B.C.–17 A.D. or 18 A.D. (2018).Metamorphoses.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-03359-8.OCLC1007036859.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ab"OVID, FASTI BOOK 6 - Theoi Classical Texts Library".www.theoi.com.Retrieved2020-03-31.
  13. ^Lurker, Manfred (2004-08-02).The Routledge Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils and Demons.doi:10.4324/9780203643518.ISBN9780203643518.
  14. ^ab"OVID, FASTI BOOK 3 - Theoi Classical Texts Library".www.theoi.com.Retrieved2020-03-31.
  15. ^"Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4".lexundria.com.Retrieved2020-03-31.
  16. ^AristotleMirab. Narrat.117
  17. ^Schmitz, Leonhard(1867)."Achaea (2)".In Smith, William (ed.).Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.Vol. 1. Boston. p. 8. Archived fromthe originalon 2005-07-10.Retrieved2007-09-26.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ^Gradel, Ittai (2002).Emperor worship and Roman religion.New York: Clarendon Press.
  19. ^Mark Cartwright."Minerva".World History Encyclopedia.
  20. ^Livy (1965).History of Rome.ISBN0-674-99126-5.OCLC991483377.
  21. ^abMacRae, Duncan (2016).Legible religion: books, gods, and rituals in Roman culture.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-08871-9.OCLC974037540.
  22. ^"American Numismatic Society: Browse Collection".Retrieved2017-03-02.
  23. ^abcdHenig, Martin (1984).Religion in Roman Britain.London: Batsford.
  24. ^abcSauer, Eberhard (March 1996). "An Inscription from Northern Italy, the Roman Temple Complex in Bath and Minerva as a Healing Goddess in Gallo-Roman Religion".Oxford Journal of Archaeology.15:63–93.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1996.tb00074.x.
  25. ^"California State Symbols".California State Library.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-01-05.Retrieved2017-01-03.
  26. ^"Three Medals of Honor".National Medal of Honor Museum.16 July 2018.
  27. ^Carriazo, Inés; Vasco Campos, Aurora (July 2017)."Visita a las azoteas de Madrid: cuando los tejados se convierten en las mejores terrazas".El Confidencial.
  28. ^Cavanagh, Terry (1997).Public sculpture of Liverpool.Liverpool University Press. pp. 70–1.ISBN9780853237112.
  29. ^Elson, Peter (2014-10-14)."Liverpool Town Hall's Minerva statue restored to heavenly condition".Liverpool Echo.
  30. ^"Our Lady of Victories (The Portland Sailors and Soldiers Monument)".Public Art Portland.Retrieved28 January2017.
  31. ^"Maine Civil War Monuments: Portland (Monument Square)".Maine.gov.Archived fromthe originalon 2015-05-24.Retrieved28 January2017.
  32. ^"Minerva".Hennepin County Library.
  33. ^"Herald Square Monuments - James Gordon Bennett Memorial: NYC Parks".www.nycgovparks.org.
  34. ^"minerva | Search Results | Wellsipedia".wellsipedia.wordpress.com.Retrieved2017-03-09.
  35. ^Citizen, Erik Sorensen / Special to The."Wells College to graduate its first males this weekend".Auburn Citizen.Retrieved2017-03-09.
  36. ^York, Michelle (2005-09-06)."Wells College: Newly, and Uneasily, Coed".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved2017-03-09.
  37. ^"Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute - All are welcome to visit for tours, cultural events and exhibitions".Ballarat Mechanics Institute.Retrieved2019-03-09.
  38. ^"Bicentennial Sculpture at Manderson Landing – Building Bama | The University of Alabama".Buildingbama.ua.edu. 2019-12-13.Retrieved2022-08-15.
  39. ^Boccaccio, Giovanni(2003).Famous Women.I Tatti Renaissance Library. Vol. 1. Translated by Virginia Brown. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. xi.ISBN0-674-01130-9.

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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