Moon

Moon
	Near side of the Moon,lunar north poleat top
Designations
Designation	Earth I
Alternative names	Luna; Selene(poetic); Cynthia(poetic);
Adjectives	Lunar; Selenian(poetic); Cynthian(poetic); Moonly(poetic);
Symbol	or
Orbital characteristics
	EpochJ2000
Perigee	362600km; (356400–370400km)
Apogee	405400km; (404000–406700km)
Semi-major axis	384399km(1.28ls,0.00257AU)
Eccentricity	0.0549
Orbital period (sidereal)	27.321661d; (27 d 7 h 43 min 11.5 s)
Orbital period (synodic)	29.530589d; (29 d 12 h 44 min 2.9 s)
Averageorbital speed	1.022km/s
Inclination	5.145° to theecliptic
Longitude of ascending node	Regressingby one revolution in 18.61 years
Argument of perigee	Progressingby one; revolution in 8.85 years
Satellite of	Earth
Physical characteristics
Mean radius	1737.4 km; (0.2727 of Earth's)
Equatorialradius	1738.1 km; (0.2725 of Earth's)
Polarradius	1736.0 km; (0.2731 of Earth's)
Flattening	0.0012
Circumference	10921km(equatorial)
Surface area	3.793×107km2; (0.074 of Earth's)
Volume	2.1958×1010km3; (0.02 of Earth's)
Mass	7.342×1022kg; (0.0123of Earth's)
Meandensity	3.344g/cm3; 0.606× Earth
Surface gravity	1.622 m/s2(5.32 ft/s2); 0.1654g0
Moment of inertia factor	0.3929±0.0009
Escape velocity	2.38 km/s; (8600km/h;5300mph)
Synodic rotation period	29.530589d; (29 d 12 h 44 min 2.9 s;synodic; solar day) (spin-orbit locked)
Sidereal rotation period	27.321661d(spin-orbit locked)
Equatorial rotation velocity	4.627 m/s
Axial tilt	1.5424° toecliptic; 6.687° toorbit plane; 24° to Earth's equator ;
North poleright ascension	17h47m26s; 266.86°;
North poledeclination	65.64°
Albedo	0.136
Surfaceabsorbed doserate	13.2 μGy/h; (during lunardaytime)
Surfaceequivalent doserate	57.0 μSv/h; (during lunar daytime)
Apparent magnitude	−2.5 to −12.9; −12.74(meanfull moon);
Absolute magnitude(H)	0.2
Angular diameter	29.3 to 34.1arcminutes
Atmosphere
Surfacepressure	10−7Pa(1picobar)(day); 10−10Pa (1 femtobar); (night);
Composition by volume	He; Ar; Ne; Na; K; H; Rn;

TheMoonisEarth's onlynatural satellite.Itorbitsat anaverage distanceof 384,400 km (238,900 mi), about 30 times the diameter of Earth.Tidal forcesbetween Earth and the Moon have over timesynchronizedthe Moon's orbital period (lunar month) with its rotation period (lunar day) at 29.5 Earth days, causing thesame sideof the Moon to always face Earth. The Moon's gravitational pull – and to a lesser extent, theSun's – are the main drivers of Earth'stides.

Ingeophysical termsthe Moon is aplanetary-mass objectorsatellite planet.Its mass is 1.2% that of the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earth's (about as wide asAustralia.^[17]) Within theSolar System,it is thelargest and most massivesatellite in relation to itsparent planet,the fifth largest and most massive moon overall, and larger and more massive than all knowndwarf planets.^[18]Itssurface gravityis about one sixth of Earth's, about half of that ofMars,and the second highest among all Solar System moons, afterJupiter's moonIo.The body of the Moon isdifferentiatedandterrestrial,with no significanthydrosphere,atmosphere,ormagnetic field.Itformed4.51 billion years ago, not long afterEarth's formation,out of the debris froma giant impactbetween Earth and a hypothesizedMars-sized body calledTheia.

Thelunar surfaceis covered inlunar dustand marked bymountains,impact craters,their ejecta,ray-like streaksand, mostly on the near side of the Moon, by darkmaria( "seas" ), which are plains ofcooled magma.These maria were formed when molten lava flowed into ancient impact basins. The Moon is, except when passing throughEarth's shadowduring alunar eclipse,always illuminated by the Sun, but from Earth the visible illumination shifts during its orbit, producing thelunar phases.^[19]The Moon is thebrightest celestial objectin Earth'snight sky.This is mainly due to its largeangular diameter,while thereflectanceof the lunar surface is comparable to that ofasphalt.The apparent size is nearly the same as that of the Sun, allowing it to cover the Sun completely during a totalsolar eclipse.From Earth about 59% of the lunar surface is visible over time due to cyclical shifts in perspective (libration), making parts of the far side of the Moon visible.

The Moon has been an important source of inspiration and knowledge for humans, having been crucial tocosmography,mythology,religion,art,time keeping,natural science,andspaceflight.On September 13, 1959, the first human-made object toreach an extraterrestrial bodyarrived on the Moon, theSoviet Union'sLuna 2 impactor.In 1966, the Moon became the first extraterrestrial body wheresoft landingsandorbital insertionswereachieved.On July 20, 1969, humans for the first time landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body, atMare Tranquillitatiswith the landerEagleof theUnited States'Apollo 11mission. Five more crews were sent between then and 1972, each with two men landing on the surface. The longest stay was 75 hours by theApollo 17crew. Since then,exploration of the Moonhas continued robotically, and crewed missions are beingplanned to returnbeginning in the late 2020s.

Names and etymology

The usualEnglishproper name for Earth's natural satellite is simplyMoon,with a capital M.^[20]^[21]The nounmoonis derived fromOld Englishmōna,which (like all itsGermaniccognates) stems fromProto-Germanic*mēnōn,^[22]which in turn comes fromProto-Indo-European*mēnsis"month"^[23](from earlier*mēnōt,genitive*mēneses) which may be related to the verb "measure" (of time).^[24]

Occasionally, the nameLuna/ˈluːnə/is used in scientific writing^[25]and especially in science fiction to distinguish the Earth's moon from others, while in poetry "Luna" has been used to denote personification of the Moon.^[26]Cynthia/ˈsɪnθiə/is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon personified as a goddess,^[27]whileSelene/səˈliːniː/(literally "Moon" ) is the Greek goddess of the Moon.

The English adjective pertaining to the Moon is "lunar", derived from the Latin word for the Moon,lūna.Selenian/səliːniən/^[28]is an adjective used to describe the Moon as a world, rather than as a celestial object,^[29]but its use is rare. It is derived fromσελήνηselēnē,the Greek word for the Moon, and its cognateselenicwas originally a rare synonym^[30]but now nearly always refers to the chemical elementselenium.^[31]The element nameseleniumand the prefixseleno-(as inselenography,the study of the physical features of the Moon) come from this Greek word.^[32]^[33]

The Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt,Artemis,equated with the RomanDiana,one of whose symbols was the Moon and who was often regarded as the goddess of the Moon, was also calledCynthia,from her legendary birthplace onMount Cynthus.^[34]These names – Luna, Cynthia and Selene – are reflected in technical terms forlunar orbitssuch asapolune,pericynthionandselenocentric.

Theastronomical symbolfor the Moon is a crescent\decrescent,\,for example inM_☾'lunar mass' (alsoM_L).

Natural history

Lunar geologic timescale

Millions of years before present

The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from mostimpact cratersoutside the darkmare,to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and therefore readily visible craters withray systemslikeCopernicusorTycho.

Formation

Isotope datingof lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after theorigin of the Solar System.^[37]^[38]Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed,^[39]but none satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust throughcentrifugal force^[40]would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth.^[41]Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon^[42]depends on an unfeasibly extendedatmosphere of Earthtodissipatethe energy of the passing Moon.^[41]A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in theprimordial accretion diskdoes not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon.^[41]None of these hypotheses can account for the highangular momentumof the Earth–Moon system.^[43]

The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after agiant impactof aMars-sized body (namedTheia) with theproto-Earth.The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon^[44]^[45]just beyond the Earth'sRoche limitof ~2.56R_🜨.^[46]

Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth.^[47]However, models from 2007 and later suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars andVestahave, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungstenisotopiccompositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two,^[52]although this is debated.^[53]

The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system.^[54]^[55]The newly formed Moon would have hadits own magma ocean;its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles).^[54]

While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition.^[56]Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant amount of the proto-earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements.^[57]Above a high resolution threshold for simulations,^[clarify]a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth'sRoche limit.Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits.^[58]

On November 1, 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of aprotoplanet,namedTheia,could be inside the Earth, left over from a collision with the Earth in ancient times, and afterwards becoming the Moon.^[59]^[60]

Natural development

Artist's depiction of the Moon as it might have appeared in Earth's sky after theLate Heavy Bombardmentaround 4 billion years ago. At that time the Moon orbited the Earth at half its current distance, making it appear 2.8 times larger than it does today.^[61]

The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other,eclipseswere more frequent, andtidal effectswere stronger.^[61] Due totidal acceleration,the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger, with a longer period.^[62]

Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most ofits atmospherehas been stripped.^[63]Thelunar surfacehas since been shaped by largeimpact eventsand many small ones, forming a landscape featuringcratersof all ages.

The Moon wasvolcanically activeuntil 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominentlunar maria.Most of themare basaltserupted during theImbrian period,3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years^[64]and some as old as 4.2 billion years.^[65]There are differing explanations for the eruption of mare basalts, particularly their uneven occurrence which mainly appear on the near-side. Causes of the distribution of thelunar highlandson thefar sideare also not well understood. Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side. One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava to flow onto the surface.^[66]

Physical characteristics

The Moon is a very slightly scaleneellipsoiddue to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to restorehydrostatic equilibriumat its current orbital distance.^[67]

Size and mass

The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System, categorizable as one of itsplanetary-mass moons,making it a satellite planet under thegeophysical definitions of the term.^[18]It is smaller than Mercury and considerably larger than the largestdwarf planetof the Solar System,Pluto.While theminor-planet moon Charonof thePluto-Charon systemis larger relative to Pluto,^[f]^[68]the Moon is the largest natural satellite of the Solar System relative to theirprimaryplanets.^[g]

The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than a quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon comparable to the width of eitherAustralia,^[17]Europe or the US without Alaska.^[69]The whole surface area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, almost exactlythe areaof the wholeAmerican landmass.

The Moon's mass is 1/81 of Earth's,^[70]being the second densest among the planetary moons, and having the second highestsurface gravity,afterIo,at0.1654gand an escape velocity of 2.38 km/s(8600km/h;5300mph).

Structure

The Moon is adifferentiatedbody that was initially inhydrostatic equilibriumbut has since departed from this condition.^[71]It has ageochemicallydistinctcrust,mantle,andcore.The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi).^[72]^[73]This structure is thought to have developed through thefractional crystallizationof a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.^[74]

Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created amaficmantle from theprecipitationand sinking of the mineralsolivine,clinopyroxene,andorthopyroxene;after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallized, lower-densityplagioclaseminerals could form and float into a crust atop.^[75]The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance ofincompatibleand heat-producing elements.^[1]Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostlyanorthosite.^[16]TheMoon rocksamples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth.^[1]The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick.^[1]

The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, afterIo.^[76]However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less,^[1]around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyzes of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten.^[77]The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm).^[78]

Gravitational field

AstronautJohn Youngjumping on the Moon, illustrating that thegravitational pullof the Moon is approximately 1/6 of Earth's. The jumping height is limited by the EVA space suit's weight on the Moon of about 13.6 kg (30 lb) and by the suit's pressurization resisting the bending of the suit, as needed for jumping.^[79]^[80]

On average the Moon'ssurface gravityis1.62m/s²^[4](0.1654g;5.318ft/s²), about half of the surface gravity ofMarsand about a sixth of Earth's.

TheMoon's gravitational fieldis not uniform. The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking theDoppler shiftof radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main lunar gravity features aremascons,large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.^[81]^[82]The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism.^[83]

Magnetic field

The Moon hasan external magnetic fieldof less than 0.2nanoteslas,^[84]or less than one hundred thousandththat of Earth.The Moon does not have a globaldipolarmagnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating.^[85]^[86]Early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today.^[84]This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had crystallized.^[84]Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near theantipodesof the giant impact basins.^[87]

Atmosphere

The Moon has anatmosphereso tenuous as to be nearlyvacuum,with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).^[92]The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10⁻¹⁵atm(0.3nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources includeoutgassingandsputtering,a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions.^[16]^[93]Elements that have been detected includesodiumandpotassium,produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres ofMercuryandIo);helium-4andneon^[94]from the solar wind; andargon-40,radon-222,andpolonium-210,outgassed after their creation byradioactive decaywithin the crust and mantle.^[95]^[96]The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) asoxygen,nitrogen,carbon,hydrogenandmagnesium,which are present in theregolith,is not understood.^[95]Water vapor has been detected byChandrayaan-1and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from thesublimationof water ice in the regolith.^[97]These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field.^[95]

Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by theApollomissions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-dayMars.The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space.^[63]

A permanentMoon dustcloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets. Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made byLADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during theGeminid,Quadrantid,Northern Taurid,andOmicron Centaurid meteor showers,when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside.^[98]^[99]

Surface conditions

Gene Cernanwith lunar dust stuck on his suit. Lunar dust is highly abrasive and can cause damage to human lungs, nervous, and cardiovascular systems.^[100]

Ionizing radiationfromcosmic rays,the Sun and the resultingneutron radiation^[101]produce radiation levels on average of 1.369millisievertsper day during lunardaytime,^[14]which is about 2.6 times more than on theInternational Space Stationwith 0.53 millisieverts per day at about 400 km above Earth in orbit, 5–10 times more than during a trans-Atlantic flight, 200 times more than on Earth's surface.^[102]For further comparison radiation on aflight to Marsis about 1.84 millisieverts per day and on Mars on average 0.64 millisieverts per day, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day.^[103]^[104]

The Moon'saxial tiltwith respect to theeclipticis only 1.5427°,^[8]^[105]much less than the 23.44° of Earth. Because of this small tilt, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less withseasonthan on Earth and it allows for the existence of somepeaks of eternal lightat theMoon's north pole,at the rim of the craterPeary.

The surface is exposed to drastic temperature differences ranging from140 °Cto−171 °Cdepending on thesolar irradiance. Because of the lack of atmosphere, temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow,^[106]making topographical details play a decisive role on localsurface temperatures.^[107] Parts of many craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters,^[108]are permanently shadowed, these "craters of eternal darkness"have extremely low temperatures. TheLunar Reconnaissance Orbitermeasured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F)^[109]and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar craterHermite.This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface ofPluto.^[107]

Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highlycomminuted(broken into ever smaller particles) andimpact gardenedmostly gray surface layer calledregolith,formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, thelunar soilofsilicon dioxideglass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spentgunpowder.^[110]The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–15 m (33–49 ft) in the highlands and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the maria.^[111]Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is themegaregolith,a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick.^[112]

These extreme conditions for example are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor bacterial spores at the Moon longer than just one lunar orbit.^[113]

Surface features

Thetopography of the Moonhas been measured withlaser altimetryandstereo image analysis.^[114]Its most extensivetopographic featureis the giant far-sideSouth Pole–Aitken basin,some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impactcrater in the Solar System.^[115]^[116]At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon.^[115]^[117]The highest elevations of the Moon's surface are located directly to the northeast, which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.^[118]Other large impact basins such asImbrium,Serenitatis,Crisium,Smythii,andOrientalepossess regionally low elevations and elevated rims.^[115]The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side.^[1]

The discovery offault scarpcliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years.^[119]Similar shrinkage features exist onMercury.Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat.^[120]

Volcanic features

The main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar plains calledmaria(singularmare;Latinfor "seas", as they were once believed to be filled with water)^[121]are vast solidified pools of ancientbasalticlava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water.^[122]The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into the depressions associated withimpact basins.Severalgeologic provincescontainingshield volcanoesand volcanicdomesare found within the near side "maria".^[123]

Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side^[70]compared with 2% of the far side.^[124]This is likely due to aconcentration of heat-producing elementsunder the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.^[75]^[125]^[126]Most of the Moon'smare basaltserupted during theImbrian period,3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some being as young as 1.2 billion years^[64]and as old as 4.2 billion years.^[65]

In 2006, a study ofIna,a tiny depression inLacus Felicitatis,found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old.^[127]Moonquakesand releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity.^[127]Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70irregular mare patches,some less than 50 million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131]Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell,^[132]^[133]inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin.^[134]^[135]

The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are calledterrae,or more commonlyhighlands,because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may representplagioclase cumulatesof the lunar magma ocean.^[65]^[64]In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.^[136]

The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation.^[137]^[138]Alternatively, it may be a consequence of asymmetricaltidal heatingwhen the Moon was much closer to the Earth.^[139]

Impact craters

A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface isimpact cratering,^[140]with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side.^[141]Thelunar geologic timescaleis based on the most prominent impact events, includingNectaris,Imbrium,andOrientale;structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regionalstratigraphic horizon.^[142]The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a fewmulti-ring basinshave been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.^[142]The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during theApollo missionscluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose aLate Heavy Bombardmentperiod of increased impacts.^[143]

High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused bydistal ejectais thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years.^[144]^[145]This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts.^[146]

Lunar swirls

Wide angle image of a lunar swirl, the 70 kilometer longReiner Gamma

Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and often have a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surfacemagnetic fieldsand many are located at theantipodal pointof major impacts. Well known swirls include theReiner Gammafeature andMare Ingenii.They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from thesolar wind,resulting in slowerspace weathering.^[147]

Presence of water

Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known asphotodissociationand is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impactingcometsor possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen fromsolar wind,leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.^[148]^[149]Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km²(5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow.^[108]The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in renderinglunar habitationas a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive.^[150]

In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.^[151]In 1994, thebistatic radar experimentlocated on theClementinespacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations byArecibo,suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.^[152]In 1998, theneutron spectrometeron theLunar Prospectorspacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.^[153]Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.^[154]

The 2008Chandrayaan-1spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-boardMoon Mineralogy Mapper.The spectrometer observed absorption lines common tohydroxyl,in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000ppm.^[155]Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018.^[156]In 2009,LCROSSsent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into apermanently shadowedpolar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material.^[157]^[158]Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).^[159]

In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water inmelt inclusionsin lunar sample 74220 was reported,^[160]the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during theApollo 17mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth'supper mantle.Although of considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.

Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.^[161]^[162]The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.^[163]The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.^[161]^[163]

In October 2020, astronomers reported detectingmolecular wateron the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including theStratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy(SOFIA).^[164]^[165]^[166]^[167]

Earth–Moon system

Orbit

The Earth and the Moon form the Earth-Moonsatellite systemwith a shared center of mass, orbarycenter.This barycenter is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface.

The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with anorbital eccentricityof 0.055.^[1] Thesemi-major axisof the geocentric lunar orbit, called thelunar distance,is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28 light-seconds), comparable to goingaround Earth9.5 times.^[168]

The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, itssidereal period,about once every 27.3 days.^[h]However, because the Earth-Moon system moves at the same time in its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days,^[i]^[70]to return at the samelunar phase,completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth. Thissynodic periodor synodic month is commonly known as thelunar monthand is equal to the length of thesolar dayon the Moon.^[169]

Due totidal locking,the Moon has a 1:1spin–orbit resonance.Thisrotation–orbitratio makes the Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its correspondingrotation periods.This is the reason for only one side of the Moon, its so-callednear side,being visible from Earth. That said, while the movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such aslibration,resulting in slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth.^[170]

Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to theecliptic planethan to the planet'sequatorial plane.The Moon's orbit is subtlyperturbedby the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbitgradually rotatesonce every 18.61years,^[171]which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described byCassini's laws.^[172]

Tidal effects

The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting intidal forces.Ocean tidesare the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system.

The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are insynchronous rotation,a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.^[173]The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance andlibration,a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides).^[173]According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintainingEarth's magnetic field.^[174]

The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces producesmoonquakes.Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery fromseismometersplaced on the Moon byApollo astronautsfrom 1969 through 1972.^[175]

The most commonly known effect of tidal forces are elevated sea levels called ocean tides.^[176]While the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay thespring and neap tides.^[176]

The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.^[176]Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth.

If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:

the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors
theinertiaof water's movement
ocean basins that grow shallower near land
the sloshing of water between different ocean basins^[177]

As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.

System evolution

Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides causetorquein opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains"angular momentumand rotationalkinetic energyfrom Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.^[176]^[173]That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known astidal acceleration,which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.

Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.^[173]Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).^[178]^[179]^[180] Atomic clocksshow that Earth's day lengthens by about 17microsecondsevery year,^[181]^[182]^[183]slowly increasing the rate at whichUTCis adjusted byleap seconds.

This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match. This matching first results intidally lockingthe lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years,^[184]the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon. However, the Sun will become ared giant,most likely engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before then.^[185]^[186]

If the Earth-Moon system isn't engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth'sRoche limit,meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into aring system.Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth. Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless.^[187]

Position and appearance

The Moon's highestaltitudeatculminationvaries by itslunar phase,or more correctly its orbital position, and time of the year, or more correctly the position of the Earth's axis. The full moon is highest in the sky during winter and lowest during summer (for each hemisphere respectively), with its altitude changing towards dark moon to the opposite.

At theNorthandSouth Polesthe Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks everytropical month(about 27.3 days), comparable to thepolar dayof thetropical year.Zooplanktonin theArcticusemoonlightwhen the Sun isbelow the horizonfor months on end.^[188]

The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed. In thenorthern hemisphereit appears upside down compared to the view from thesouthern hemisphere.^[189]Sometimes the "horns" of a crescent moon appear to be pointing more upwards than sideways. This phenomenon is called awet moonand occurs more frequently in thetropics.^[190]

Thedistance between the Moon and Earthvaries from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%.^[191]^[192]On average the Moon'sangular diameteris about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see§ Eclipses). In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as theMoon illusion,makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon.^[193]

Despite the Moon's tidal locking, the effect oflibrationmakes about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth over the course of one month.^[170]^[70]

Rotation

Thetidally locked synchronous rotationof the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called thenear side,and the opposite thefar side.The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. Duringdark moontonew moon,the near side is dark.^[194]

The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and becametidally lockedin this orientation as a result offrictionaleffects associated withtidaldeformations caused by Earth.^[195]With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASALunar Prospectormission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.^[196]

Illumination and phases

Half of the Moon's surface is always illuminated by the Sun (except during alunar eclipse). Earth also reflects light onto the Moon, observable at times asEarthlightwhen it is reflected back to Earth from areas of thenear side of the Moonthat are not illuminated by the Sun.

Since the Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is 1.5427°, in everydraconic year(346.62 days) the Sun moves from being 1.5427° north of the lunar equator to being 1.5427° south of it and then back, just as on Earth the Sun moves from theTropic of Cancerto theTropic of Capricornand back once everytropical year.The poles of the Moon are therefore in the dark for half a draconic year (or with only part of the Sun visible) and then lit for half a draconic year. The amount of sunlight falling on horizontal areas near the poles depends on thealtitude angleof the Sun. But these "seasons" have little effect in more equatorial areas.

With the different positions of the Moon, different areas of it are illuminated by the Sun. This illumination of different lunar areas, as viewed from Earth, produces the differentlunar phasesduring thesynodic month.The phase is equal to the area of the visible lunar sphere that is illuminated by the Sun. This area ordegree of illuminationis given by $(1-\cos e)/2=\sin ^{2}(e/2)$ ,where $e$ is theelongation(i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer on Earth, and the Sun).

Brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its ellipticorbit around Earth.Atperigee(closest), since the Moon is up to 14% closer to Earth than atapogee(most distant), it subtends asolid anglewhich is up to 30% larger. Consequently, given the same phase, the Moon's brightness also varies by up to 30% between apogee and perigee.^[197]A full (or new) moon at such a position is called asupermoon.^[191]^[192]^[198]

Observational phenomena

There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poorastronomical seeing,or inadequate drawings. However,outgassingdoes occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reportedlunar transient phenomena.Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.^[199]^[200]

Albedo and color

The Moon has an exceptionally lowalbedo,giving it areflectancethat is slightly brighter than that of wornasphalt.Despite this, it is thebrightest object in the skyafter theSun.^[70]^[j]This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of theopposition surge;the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as atfull moon.^[201]Additionally,color constancyin thevisual systemrecalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the center, withoutlimb darkening,because of thereflective propertiesoflunar soil,whichretroreflectslight more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon's color depends on the light the Moon reflects, which in turn depends on the Moon's surface and its features, having for example large darker regions. In general the lunar surface reflects a brown-tinged gray light.^[202]

At times, the Moon can appear red or blue. It may appear red during alunar eclipse,because of the red spectrum of the Sun's light beingrefractedonto the Moon by Earth's atmosphere. Because of this red color, lunar eclipses are also sometimes calledblood moons.The Moon can also seem red when it appears at low angles and through a thick atmosphere.

The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air,^[202]such as volcanic particles,^[203]in which case it can be called ablue moon.

Because the words "red moon" and "blue moon" can also be used to refer to specificfull moonsof the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or bluemoonlight.

Eclipses

Asolar eclipsecauses the Sun to be covered, revealing the whitecorona.

The Moon, tinted reddish, during alunar eclipse

Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy").Solar eclipsesoccur atnew moon,when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast,lunar eclipsesoccur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth. The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles. This makes possible bothtotal(with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) andannular(with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.^[204]In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and thesolar coronabecomes visible to thenaked eye.

Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time,^[176]the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. As it evolves toward becoming ared giant,the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.^[k]The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur.^[205]

As the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to theorbit of Earth around the Sun,eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.^[206]The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by thesaros,which has a period of approximately 18 years.^[207]

Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky,^[l]^[208]the related phenomenon ofoccultationoccurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of theprecessionof the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted.^[209]

History of exploration and human presence

Pre-telescopic observation (before 1609)

It is believed by some that the oldestcave paintingsfrom up to 40,000BPof bulls and geometric shapes,^[210]or 20–30,000 year oldtally stickswere used to observe the phases of the Moon, keeping time using the waxing and waning ofthe Moon's phases.^[211] One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 3,000 BCE rock carvingOrthostat 47atKnowth,Ireland,^[212]^[213]with theNebra sky discfromc. 1800–1600 BCEbeing another depiction identified as the oldest.^[214]

Theancient GreekphilosopherAnaxagoras(d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.^[215]^[216]^: 227Elsewhere in the5th century BCto4th century BC,Babylonian astronomershad recorded the 18-yearSaros cycleoflunar eclipses,^[217]andIndian astronomershad described the Moon's monthly elongation.^[218]TheChinese astronomer Shi Shen(fl.4th century BC)gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses.^[216]^: 411

InAristotle's (384–322 BC)description of the universe,the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars ofaether,aninfluential philosophythat would dominate for centuries.^[219]Archimedes(287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.^[220]In the2nd century BC,Seleucus of Seleuciacorrectly theorized thattideswere due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to theSun.^[221]In the same century,Aristarchus computed the size and distanceof the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times theradius of Earthfor the distance.

Although the Chinese of theHan dynastybelieved the Moon to be energy equated toqi,their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, andJing Fang(78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon.^[216]^{: 413–414}Ptolemy(90–168 AD) greatly improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters, close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively.^[222]In the 2nd century AD,Lucianwrote the novelA True Story,in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 510 AD, the Indian astronomerAryabhatamentioned in hisAryabhatiyathat reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.^[223]^[224]The astronomer and physicistIbn al-Haytham(965–1039) found thatsunlightwas not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions.^[225]Shen Kuo(1031–1095) of theSong dynastycreated an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.^[216]^{: 415–416}

During theMiddle Ages,before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".^[226]

Telescopic exploration (1609–1959)

In 1609,Galileo Galileiused an early telescope to make drawings of the Moon for his bookSidereus Nuncius,and deduced that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters.Thomas Harriothad made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier.

Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts ofGiovanni Battista RiccioliandFrancesco Maria Grimaldiled to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The more exact 1834–1836Mappa SelenographicaofWilhelm BeerandJohann Heinrich von Mädler,and their associated 1837 bookDer Mond,the firsttrigonometricallyaccurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography.^[227]Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to bevolcanicuntil the 1870s proposal ofRichard Proctorthat they were formed by collisions.^[70]This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologistGrove Karl Gilbert,and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s,^[228]leading to the development oflunar stratigraphy,which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch ofastrogeology.^[70]

First missions to the Moon (1959–1976)

AfterWorld War IIthe firstlaunch systemswere developed and by the end of the 1950s they reached capabilities that allowed theSoviet Unionand theUnited Statesto launchspacecraftinto space. TheCold Warfueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states, resulting in the so-calledSpace Raceand its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and interest inexploration of the Moon.

After the first spaceflight ofSputnik 1in 1957 duringInternational Geophysical Yearthe spacecraft of the Soviet Union'sLunaprogramwere the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958,^[229]the first human-made objectLuna 1escaped Earth's gravity and passed near the Moon in 1959. Later that year the first human-made objectLuna 2reached the Moon's surface byintentionally impacting.By the end of the yearLuna 3reached as the first human-made object the normally occludedfar side of the Moon,taking the first photographs of it. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunarsoft landingwasLuna 9and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon wasLuna 10,both in 1966.^[70]

The small blue-white semicircle of Earth, almost glowing with color in the blackness of space, rising over the limb of the desolate, cratered surface of the Moon. — *Earthrise*,the first colorimage of Earthtaken by a human from the Moon, duringApollo 8(1968) the first time a crewed spacecraft left Earth orbit and reached anotherastronomical body

Following PresidentJohn F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: theJet Propulsion Laboratory'sRanger program,theLunar Orbiter programand theSurveyor program.The crewedApollo programwas developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potentialSoviet lunar human landing,in 1968Apollo 8made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union'sZond 5,followed by turtles onZond 6). The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of the Space Race.^[230]

Neil Armstrongbecame the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American missionApollo 11by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969.^[231]An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by theApollo TV camera,the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.^[232]^[233]The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (exceptApollo 13,which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196separate samples.^[234]

Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-livedinstrument stations,including heat flow probes,seismometers,andmagnetometers,were installed at theApollo 12,14,15,16,and17landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,^[235]^[236]but as the stations'lunar laser rangingcorner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used.^[237] Apollo 17in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon.Explorer 49in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until the 1990s.

The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 withLuna 17the first remote controlledrover Lunokhod 1on an extraterrestrial surface, and collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with threeLunasample return missions(Luna 16in 1970,Luna 20in 1972, andLuna 24in 1976).^[238]

Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990)

A near lunar quietude of fourteen years followed thelast Soviet mission to the Moonof 1976. Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of theinner(e.g.Venera program) andouter(e.g.Pioneer 10,1972)Solar System planets,but also towardsEarth orbit,developing and continuously operating, besidecommunication satellites,Earth observation satellites(e.g.Landsat program,1972),space telescopesand particularlyspace stations(e.g.Salyut program,1971).

The until 1979 negotiatedMoon treaty,with its ratification in 1984 by its few signatories was about the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990.

Renewed exploration (1990–present)

In 1990Hiten-Hagoromo,^[239]the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon. Sent byJapan,it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon.

In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (Clementine) to the Moon again for the first time since 1973. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first globalmultispectralimages of the lunar surface.^[240]In 1998, this was followed by theLunar Prospectormission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters.^[241]

The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring the Moon. Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by theEuropean Space Agency(ESA) (SMART-1) reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface.^[242] TheChinese Lunar Exploration Programreached the Moon for the first time with the orbiterChang'e 1(2007–2009),^[243]obtaining a full image map of the Moon. Indiareached, orbited and impacted the Moon in 2008 for the first time with itsChandrayaan-1andMoon Impact Probe,becoming the fifth and sixth state to do so, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence ofwater molecules in lunar soil.^[244]

The U.S. launched theLunar Reconnaissance Orbiter(LRO)and theLCROSSimpactor on June 18, 2009.LCROSScompleted its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the craterCabeuson October 9, 2009,^[245]whereasLROis currently in operation, obtaining precise lunaraltimetryand high-resolution imagery.

China continued its lunar program in 2010 withChang'e 2,mapping the surface at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, and in 2013 withChang'e 3,a lunarlanderalong with alunar rovernamedYutu(Chinese:Ngọc thỏ;lit.'Jade Rabbit'). This was the first lunar rover mission sinceLunokhod 2in 1973 and the first lunarsoft landingsinceLuna 24in 1976, making China the third country to achieve this.

In 2014 the first privately funded probe, theManfred Memorial Moon Mission,reached the Moon.

Another Chinese rover mission,Chang'e 4,achieved the first landing onthe Moon's far sidein early 2019.^[246]

Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe,Chandrayaan-2to the Moon.

In 2020, China carried out its first roboticsample return mission(Chang'e 5), bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth.^[247]

The U.S.developed plansfor returning to the Moon beginning in 2004,^[248]and with the signing of the U.S.-ledArtemis Accordsin 2020, theArtemis programaims to return the astronauts to the Moon in the 2020s.^[249]The Accords have been joined by a growing number of countries. The introduction of the Artemis Accords has fueled a renewed discussion about the international framework and cooperation of lunar activity, building on theMoon Treatyand the ESA-ledMoon Villageconcept.^[250]^[251]^[252]

2023 and 2024Indiaand Japan became the fourth and fifth country tosoft landa spacecraft on the Moon, following theSoviet UnionandUnited Statesin the 1960s, andChinain the 2010s.^[253]Notably, Japan's spacecraft, theSmart Lander for Investigating Moon,survived 3 lunar nights.^[254]TheIM-1lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024.^[255]

China launched theChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted another lunar sample return from thefar side of the Moon.^[256]It also carried a chinese rover to conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface.^[257]Pakistansent a lunar orbiter calledICUBE-Qalong with Chang'e 6.^[258]

Nova-C 2,VIPER,iSpace LanderandBlue Ghostare all planned to launch to the Moon in 2024.

Future

Beside the progressingArtemis programand supportingCommercial Lunar Payload Services,leading an international and commercial crewed opening up of the Moon and sending thefirst woman,person of colour and non-US citizen to the Moon in the 2020s,^[259]China is continuing its ambitiousChang'e program,having announced with Russia's strugglingLuna-Globprogram joint missions.^[260]^[261]Both the Chinese and US lunar programs have the goal to establish in the 2030s alunar basewith their international partners, though the US and its partners will first establish an orbitalLunar Gatewaystation in the 2020s, from which Artemis missions will land theHuman Landing Systemto set up temporary surface camps.

While the Apollo missions were explorational in nature, the Artemis program plans to establish a more permanent presence. To this end, NASA is partnering with industry leaders to establish key elements such as modern communication infrastructure. A4Gconnectivity demonstration is to be launched aboard anIntuitive Machines Nova-Clander in 2024.^[262]Another focus is onin situ resource utilization,which is a key part of theDARPA lunar programs.DARPAhas requested that industry partners develop a 10–year lunar architecture plan to enable the beginning of a lunar economy.^[263]

Human presence

Humans last landed on the Moon during theApollo Program,a series of crewed exploration missions carried out from 1969 to 1972.Lunar orbithas seen uninterruptedpresence of orbiters since 2006,performing mainlylunar observationand providing relayed communication for robotic missions on the lunar surface.

Lunar orbits andorbits around Earth–Moon Lagrange pointsare used to establish a near-lunar infrastructure to enable increasing human activity incislunar spaceas well as on the Moon's surface. Missions at the far side of the Moon or thelunar northandsouth polarregions need spacecraft with special orbits, such as theQueqiaoandQueqiao-2 relay satelliteor the planned first extraterrestrial space station, theLunar Gateway.^[264]^[265]

Human impact

While the Moon has the lowestplanetary protection target-categorization,its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.^[267]If there isastronomy performed from the Moon,it will need to be free from any physical andradio pollution.While the Moon has no significant atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content.^[268]ScholarAlice Gormanasserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, it is not dead, and that sustainable human activity would require treating the Moon's ecology as a co-participant.^[269]

The so-called "Tardigrade affair"of the 2019 crashedBeresheetlander and its carrying oftardigradeshas been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation forplanetary protection.^[270]

Space debrisbeyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions.^[271]^[272]As such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly on the surface, need to tackle.^[273]^[274]

Human remains have been transported to the Moon, including by private companies such asCelestisandElysium Space.Because the Moon has been sacred or significant to many cultures, the practice ofspace burialshave attracted criticism fromindigenous peoplesleaders. For example, then–Navajo NationpresidentAlbert Halecriticized NASA for sending thecrematedashes of scientistEugene Shoemakerto the Moon in 1998.^[275]^[276]

Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like theMoon Museumart piece,Apollo 11 goodwill messages,sixlunar plaques,theFallen Astronautmemorial, and other artifacts.^[266]

Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launchedLunar Reconnaissance Orbitersurveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launchedChang'e 3with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.^[277] Five retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate measurements of the physicallibrationsthroughlaser ranging to the Moon.

There areseveral missions by different agencies and companies plannedto establish a longterm human presence on the Moon, with theLunar Gatewayas the currently most advanced project as part of theArtemis program.

Astronomy from the Moon

The Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.^[278]It is relatively nearby; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful forinfrared telescopes;andradio telescopeson the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.^[279]Thelunar soil,although it poses a problem for any moving parts oftelescopes,can be mixed withcarbon nanotubesandepoxiesand employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.^[280]A lunarzenith telescopecan be made cheaply with anionic liquid.^[281]

In April 1972, theApollo 16mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with theFar Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.^[282]

The Moon has been also a site ofEarth observation,particularly culturally as in the 1968 photograph calledEarthrise,taken byBill AndersofApollo 8.The Earth appears in theMoon's skywith anapparent sizeof 1° 48′to 2°,^[283]three to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little fingers at an arm's length away.

Living on the Moon

The only instances ofhumans living on the Moonhave taken place in anApollo Lunar Modulefor several days at a time (for example, during theApollo 17mission).^[284]One challenge to astronauts during their stay on the surface is thatlunar duststicks to their suits and is carried into their quarters. Astronauts could taste and smell the dust, which smells like gunpowder and was called the "Apollo aroma".^[285]This fine lunar dust cancause health issues.^[285]

In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on theChang'e 4 lander.It was carried from Earth along with other small life in itsLunar Micro Ecosystem.^[286]

Legal status

AlthoughLunalanders scattered pennants of theSoviet Unionon the Moon, andU.S. flagswere symbolically planted at their landing sites by theApollo astronauts,no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.^[287]Likewise noprivate ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole,is considered credible.^[288]^[289]^[290]

The 1967Outer Space Treatydefines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind".^[287]It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations andweapons of mass destruction.^[291]A majority of countries are parties of this treaty.^[292] The 1979Moon Agreementwas created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of theMoon's resourcesby any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime.^[293]As of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations,^[294]none of which havehuman spaceflightcapabilities.

Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in theirArtemis Accords,which are challenging the treaty. The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidentialexecutive order( "Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources." ) that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'"and calls the Moon Agreement" a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise. "^[295]^[296]

With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized.^[251]In this light anImplementation Agreementfor the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted.^[250]^[252]

In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites^[297]and interest groups have argued for making such sitesWorld Heritage Sites^[298]and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon.^[270]

In 2021, theDeclaration of the Rights of the Moon^[299]was created by a group of "lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens", drawing on precedents in theRights of Naturemovement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.^[300]^[301]

Coordination and regulation

Increasing human activity at the Moon has raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity. Issues from cooperation to mere coordination, through for example the developmemt of a sharedLunar time,have been raised.

Particularly the establishment of aninternationalorUnited Nationsregulatory regime for lunar human activity has been called for by theMoon Treatyand suggested through anImplementation Agreement,^[250]^[252]but remains contentious. Current lunar programs aremultilateral,with the US-ledArtemis programand the China-ledInternational Lunar Research Station.For broader international cooperation and coordination theInternational Lunar Exploration Working Group(ILEWG), theMoon Village Association(MVA) and more gernerally theInternational Space Exploration Coordination Group(ISECG) has been established.

In culture and life

Timekeeping

TheVenus of Laussel(c. 25,000BP) holding a crescent shaped horn. The 13 notches on the horn may symbolize the average number of days from menstruation to anovulation,or the approximate number of fullmenstrual cyclesandlunar cyclesper year (although these two phenomena are unrelated).^[302]^[303]

Since pre-historic times people have taken note ofthe Moon's phasesand itswaxing and waning cycle,and used it to keep record of time.Tally sticks,notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.^[211]^[304]^[305]The counting of the days between the Moon's phases gave eventually rise to generalizedtime periodsof lunar cycles asmonths,and possibly of its phases asweeks.^[306]

The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically. The Englishmonthas well asmoon,and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g. theLatinmensisandAncient Greekμείς(meis) orμήν(mēn), meaning "month" )^[307]^[308]^[309]^[310]stem from theProto-Indo-European(PIE) root ofmoon,*méh₁nōt,derived from the PIE verbal root *meh₁-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf.the English wordsmeasureandmenstrual).^[311]^[312]^[313]To give another example from a differentlanguage family,theChinese languageuses the same word (Nguyệt) formoonas well as formonth,which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the wordweek(Tinh kỳ).

This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied,lunisolar calendars.The 7th-centuryIslamic calendaris an example of a purelylunar calendar,where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.^[314]

Of particular significance has been the occasion offull moon,highlighted and celebrated in a range of calendars and cultures, an example being the BuddhistVesak.The full moon around thesouthernornorthern autumnal equinoxis often called theharvest moonand is celebrated with festivities such as theHarvest Moon Festivalof theChinese lunar calendar,its second most important celebration afterthe ChineselunisolarLunar New Year.^[315]

Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deityKhonsu.

Cultural representation

Recurring lunaraspectsoflunar deities

ThecrescentofNanna/Sîn,c. 2100BC

Crescent headgear,chariotandvelificatioofLuna,2nd–5th century

AMoon rabbitof theMayan moon goddess,6th–9th century

Since prehistoric times humans have depicted and later described their perception of the Moon and its importance for them and theircosmologies.It has been characterized and associated in many different ways, from having aspiritor beinga deity,and anaspectthereof or an aspectin astrology.

Crescent

For the representation of the Moon, especially itslunar phases,thecrescent(🌙) has been a recurring symbol in a range of cultures since at least 3,000 BCE (Nebra sky disc) or possibly earlier with bull horns dating to the earliestcave paintingsat 40,000BP.^[214]^[210]Inwriting systemssuch as Chinese the crescent has developed into the symbolNguyệt,the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol𓇹,meaning Moon and spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deityIah,^[317]which the other ancient Egyptian lunar deitiesKhonsuandThothwere associated with.

Iconographically the crescent was used inMesopotamiaas the primary symbol ofNanna/Sîn,^[318]the ancientSumerianlunar deity,^[319]^[318]who was the father ofInanna/Ishtar,the goddess of the planetVenus(symbolized as theeight pointed Star of Ishtar),^[319]^[318]andUtu/Shamash,the god of the Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays),^[319]^[318]all three often depicted next to each other. Nanna/Sîn is, like some other lunar deities, for example Iah and Khonsu of ancient Egypt,Mene/Seleneof ancient Greece andLunaof ancient Rome, depicted as ahorned deity,featuring crescent shaped headgears or crowns.^[320]^[321]

The particular arrangement of the crescent with a star known as thestar and crescent(☪️) goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and the planet Venus, in combination. It came to represent the selene goddessArtemis,and via the patronage ofHecate,which astriple deityunder theepithettrimorphos/triviaincluded aspects of Artemis/Diana,came to be used as asymbol of Byzantium,withVirgin Mary(Queen of Heaven) later taking her place, becoming depicted inMarian venerationon a crescent and adorned with stars. Since then theheraldricuse of the star and crescent proliferated, Byzantium's symbolism possibly influencing the development of theOttoman flag,specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star,^[322]and becoming a popularsymbol for Islam(as thehilalof theIslamic calendar) andfor a range of nations.^[323]

Other association

The features of the Moon, the contrasting brighter highlands and darker maria, have been seen by different culturesforming abstract shapes.Such shapes are among others theMan in the Moon(e.g.Coyolxāuhqui) or theMoon Rabbit(e.g. the ChineseTu'er Yeor inIndigenous American mythologiesthe aspect of theMayan Moon goddess,from which possiblyAwilixis derived, or ofMetztli/Tēcciztēcatl).^[316]

Occasionally some lunar deities have been also depicteddriving a chariot across the sky,such as the HinduChandra/Soma,the Greek Artemis, which is associated with Selene, or Luna, Selene's ancient Roman equivalent.

Colour and material wise the Moon has been associated in Westernalchemywithsilver,while gold is associated with the Sun.^[324]

Through a miracle, the so-calledsplitting of the Moon(Arabic:انشقاق القمر) inIslam,association with the Moon applies also toMuhammad.^[325]

Modern culture representation

The Moon is prominently featured inVincent van Gogh's 1889 painting,The Starry Night.

An iconic image of theMan in the Moonfrom the firstscience-fiction filmset in space,A Trip to the Moon(1902,Georges Méliès), inspired by a history of literature about going to the Moon.

"Moonrise"painting of 1884 byStanisław Masłowski(Sukiennice Gallery-National Museum in Kraków,Poland)

The perception of the Moon in modern times has been informed bytelescopeenabledmodern astronomyand later byspaceflightenabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly theculturally impactful lunar landings.These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting romantic reflections about the Moon^[326]and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with the Moon.^[327]^[328]

Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place foreconomic expansion into space,with missions prospecting forlunar resources.This has been accompanied with renewed public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural andlegal relation to the celestial body,especially regardingcolonialism,^[270]as in the 1970 poem "Whitey on the Moon".In this light the Moon's nature has been invoked,^[299]particularly for lunar conservation^[272]and as acommon.^[329]^[293]^[301]

In 2021 20 July, the date of thefirst crewed moon landing,became the annualInternational Moon Day.^[330]

Lunar effect

The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the wordslunacyandlunaticare derived from the Latin name for the Moon,Luna.PhilosophersAristotleandPliny the Elderargued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.^[331]Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these claims.^[331]^[332]^[333]^[334]^[335]

Explanatory notes

^Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth'sequator^[1]
^There are a number ofnear-Earth asteroids,including3753 Cruithne,that areco-orbitalwith Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term (Morais et al, 2002). These arequasi-satellites– they are not moons as they do not orbit Earth. For more information, seeOther moons of Earth.
^Themaximum valueis given based on scaling of the brightness from the value of −12.74 given for an equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km in the NASA factsheet reference to the minimum Earth–Moon distance given there, after the latter is corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km. Theminimum value(for a distantnew moon) is based on a similar scaling using the maximum Earth–Moon distance of 407 000 km (given in the factsheet) and by calculating the brightness of theearthshineonto such a new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is[ Earthalbedo×(Earth radius/Radius ofMoon's orbit)²] relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367;Earth radius = (polarradius × equatorialradius)^½= 6 367 km.)
^The range of angular size values given are based on simple scaling of the following values given in the fact sheet reference: at an Earth-equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km, theangular sizeis 1896arcseconds.The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km. For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.
^Lucey et al. (2006) give10⁷particles cm⁻³by day and10⁵particles cm⁻³by night. Along with equatorial surface temperatures of 390Kby day and 100 K by night, theideal gas lawyields the pressures given in the infobox (rounded to the nearestorder of magnitude): 10⁻⁷Paby day and 10⁻¹⁰Pa by night.
^With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The moonCharonis larger relative to its primaryPluto,but Earth and the Moon are different since Pluto is considered adwarf planetand not a planet, unlike Earth.
^There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.
^More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days(27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s),and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days(27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s)(Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris,1961, at p.107).
^More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days(29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s)(Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris,1961, at p.107).
^The Sun'sapparent magnitudeis −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.
^See graph inSun#Life phases.At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing as it recedes from Earth.
^On average, the Moon covers an area of0.21078 square degreeson the night sky.

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External links

NASA images and videos about the Moon
Albums of images and high-resolution overflight videos by Seán Doran, based onLROCdata, onFlickrandYouTube
Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018)onYouTube
Video (04:47) – The Moon in 3D (NASA, July 2018)onYouTube

Cartographic resources

Unified Geologic Map of the Moon–United States Geological Survey
Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon
The MoononGoogle Maps,a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth
"Consolidated Lunar Atlas".Lunar and Planetary Institute.RetrievedFebruary 26,2012.
Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (USGS)List of feature names.
"Clementine Lunar Image Browser".U.S. Navy.October 15, 2003. Archived fromthe originalon April 7, 2007.RetrievedApril 12,2007.
3D zoomable globes:
- "Google Moon".2007.RetrievedApril 12,2007.
- "Moon".World Wind Central.NASA. 2007.RetrievedApril 12,2007.
Aeschliman, R."Lunar Maps".Planetary Cartography and Graphics.Archived fromthe originalon May 29, 2015.RetrievedApril 12,2007.Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)Kaguya (Selene)images
Lunar Earthside chart (4497 x 3150px)ArchivedOctober 30, 2020, at theWayback Machine
Large image of the Moon's north pole area ArchivedAugust 23, 2016, at theWayback Machine

Observation tools

"NASA's SKYCAL – Sky Events Calendar".NASA. Archived fromthe originalon August 20, 2007.RetrievedAugust 27,2007.
"Find moonrise, moonset and moonphase for a location".2008.RetrievedFebruary 18,2008.
"HMNAO's Moon Watch".2005. Archived fromthe originalon February 4, 2009.RetrievedMay 24,2009.See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location.

[inclination-3] Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth'sequator^[1]

[near-Earth_asteroids-4] There are a number ofnear-Earth asteroids,including3753 Cruithne,that areco-orbitalwith Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term (Morais et al, 2002). These arequasi-satellites– they are not moons as they do not orbit Earth. For more information, seeOther moons of Earth.

[maxval-17] Themaximum valueis given based on scaling of the brightness from the value of −12.74 given for an equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km in the NASA factsheet reference to the minimum Earth–Moon distance given there, after the latter is corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km. Theminimum value(for a distantnew moon) is based on a similar scaling using the maximum Earth–Moon distance of 407 000 km (given in the factsheet) and by calculating the brightness of theearthshineonto such a new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is[ Earthalbedo×(Earth radius/Radius ofMoon's orbit)²] relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367;Earth radius = (polarradius × equatorialradius)^½= 6 367 km.)

[angular_size-19] The range of angular size values given are based on simple scaling of the following values given in the fact sheet reference: at an Earth-equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km, theangular sizeis 1896arcseconds.The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km. For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.

[pressure_explanation-21] Lucey et al. (2006) give10⁷particles cm⁻³by day and10⁵particles cm⁻³by night. Along with equatorial surface temperatures of 390Kby day and 100 K by night, theideal gas lawyields the pressures given in the infobox (rounded to the nearestorder of magnitude): 10⁻⁷Paby day and 10⁻¹⁰Pa by night.

[Moon_vs._Charon-73] With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The moonCharonis larger relative to its primaryPluto,but Earth and the Moon are different since Pluto is considered adwarf planetand not a planet, unlike Earth.

[75] There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.

[orbpd-176] More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days(27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s),and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days(27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s)(Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris,1961, at p.107).

[synpd-177] More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days(29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s)(Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris,1961, at p.107).

[brightness-210] The Sun'sapparent magnitudeis −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.

[size_changes-215] See graph inSun#Life phases.At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing as it recedes from Earth.

[area-219] On average, the Moon covers an area of0.21078 square degreeson the night sky.

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v t e Moon
Outline
Physical properties	Internal structure Topography Atmosphere Gravity field Hill sphere Magnetic field Sodium tail Moonlight Earthshine
Orbit	Lunar distance Orbital elements Distance Perigee and apogee Libration Nodes Nodal period Precession Syzygy New moon Full moon Eclipses Lunar eclipse Total penumbral lunar eclipse Tetrad Solar eclipse Solar eclipses on the Moon Eclipse cycle Supermoon Tide Tidal force Tidal locking Tidal acceleration Tidal range Lunar station
Surface and features	Selenography Terminator Limb Hemispheres Near side Far side Poles North pole South pole Face Maria List Mountains Peak of eternal light Valleys Volcanic features Domes Calderas Lava tubes Craters List Ray systems Permanently shadowed craters South Pole–Aitken basin Soil swirls Rilles Wrinkle ridges Rocks Lunar basalt 70017 Changesite-(Y) Water Space weathering Micrometeorite Sputtering Quakes Transient lunar phenomenon Selenographic coordinate system
Science	Observation Libration Lunar theory Origin Giant-impact hypothesis Theia Lunar magma ocean Geology Timescale Late Heavy Bombardment Lunar meteorites KREEP Volcanism Experiments Lunar laser ranging ALSEP Lunar sample displays Apollo 11 Apollo 17 Lunar seismology
Exploration	Missions Apollo program Explorers Probes Landing Colonization Moonbase Tourism Lunar resources
Time-telling andnavigation	Lunar calendar Lunisolar calendar Month Lunar month Nodal period Fortnight Sennight Lunar station Lunar distance
Phasesand names	New Full Names Crescent Super and micro Blood Blue Black Dark Wet Tetrad
Daily phenomena	Moonrise Meridian passage Moonset
Related	Lunar deities Lunar effect Earth phase Moon illusion Pareidolia Man in the Moon Moon rabbit Craters named after people Artificial objects on the Moon Memorials on the Moon Moon in science fiction list Apollo era futuristic exploration Hollow Moon Moon landing conspiracy theories Moon Treaty "Moon is made of green cheese" Natural satellite Double planet Lilith (hypothetical second moon) Splitting of the Moon
Category Commons

v t e Earth
Outline History
Atmosphere	Atmosphere of Earth Prebiotic atmosphere Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Weather
Climate	Climate system Energy balance Climate change Climate variability and change Climatology Paleoclimatology
Continents	Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America
Culture and society	List of sovereign states dependent territories In culture Earth Day Flag Symbol World economy Etymology World history Time zones World
Environment	Biome Biosphere Biogeochemical cycles Ecology Ecosystem Human impact on the environment Evolutionary history of life Nature
Geodesy	Cartography Computer cartography Earth's orbit Geodetic astronomy Geomatics Gravity Navigation Remote Sensing Geopositioning Virtual globe
Geophysics	Earth structure Fluid dynamics Geomagnetism Magnetosphere Mineral physics Seismology Plate tectonics Signal processing Tomography
Geology	Age of Earth Earth science Extremes on Earth Future Geological history Geologic time scale Geologic record History of Earth
Oceans	Antarctic/Southern Ocean Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Oceanography
Natural satellite	Moon
Planetary science	Evolution of the Solar System Geology of solar terrestrial planets Location in the Universe Solar System
Category

v t e Natural satellitesof theSolar System
Planetary satellitesof	Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Dwarf planet satellitesof	Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris
Minor-planet moons	Near-Earth Florence Didymos Dimorphos Moshup Squannit 1994 CC 2001 SN₂₆₃ Main belt Kalliope Linus Euphrosyne Daphne Peneius Eugenia Petit-Prince Sylvia Romulus Remus Minerva Aegis Gorgoneion Camilla Elektra Kleopatra Alexhelios Cleoselene Ida Dactyl Roxane Olympias Pulcova Balam Dinkinesh(Selam) Jupiter trojans Patroclus Menoetius Hektor Skamandrios Eurybates Queta TNOs Lempo Hiisi Paha 2002 UX₂₅ Sila–Nunam Salacia Actaea Varda Ilmarë Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà Gǃòʼé ǃHú 2013 FY₂₇
Ranked by size	Ganymede largest:5268 km / 0.413 Earths Titan Callisto Io Moon Europa Triton Titania Rhea Oberon Iapetus Charon Umbriel Ariel Dione Tethys Dysnomia Enceladus Miranda Vanth Proteus Mimas Ilmarë Nereid Hiʻiaka Actaea Hyperion Phoebe ...
Discovery timeline Inner moons Irregular moons List Planetary-mass moons Naming Subsatellite Regular moons Trojan moons

Authority control databases
International	FAST VIAF
National	Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic
Geographic	MusicBrainz place
Other	NARA IdRef