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Morchella esculenta

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Morchella esculenta
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Pezizomycetes
Order: Pezizales
Family: Morchellaceae
Genus: Morchella
Species:
M. esculenta
Binomial name
Morchella esculenta
Synonyms

Helvella esculenta(L.)Sowerby
Phallus esculentusL.

Morchella esculenta
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Smoothhymenium
Capisconical orovate
Hymeniumattachment is irregular or not applicable
Stipeisbare
Spore printiscream toyellow
Ecology ismycorrhizal orsaprotrophic
Edibility ischoice

Morchella esculenta(commonly known ascommon morel,morel,yellow morel,true morel,morel mushroom,andsponge morel) is a species offungusin the familyMorchellaceaeof theAscomycota.It is one of the most readily recognized of all theedible mushroomsand highly sought after. Eachfruit bodybegins as a tightly compressed, grayish sponge with lighter ridges, and expands to form a large yellowish sponge with large pits and ridges raised on a large whitestem.The pitted yellow-browncapsmeasure 2–7 centimetres (1–3 inches) broad by 2–10 cm (1–4 in) tall, and are fused to the stem at its lower margin, forming a continuous hollow. The pits are rounded and irregularly arranged. The hollow stem is typically2–9 cm (1–3+1⁄2in) long by 2–5 cm (1–2 in) thick, and white to yellow. The fungus fruits under hardwoods and conifers during a short period in the spring, depending on the weather, and is also associated with old orchards, woods and disturbed grounds.

Description

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Thecapis pale brownish cream, yellow to tan or pale brown to grayish brown. The edges of the ridges are usually lighter than the pits, and somewhat oval in outline, sometimes bluntly cone-shaped with a rounded top or more elongate. Caps are hollow, attached to the stem at the lower edge, and typically about 2–7 centimetres (1–3 inches) broad by 2–10 cm (1–4 in) tall. Thefleshis brittle. Thestemis white to pallid or pale yellow, hollow, and straight or with a club-shaped or bulbous base. It is finely granular overall, somewhat ridged, generally about2–9 cm (1–3+1⁄2in) long by 2–5 cm (1–2 in) thick.[1]In age it may have brownish stains near the base.[2]It has a passing resemblance to the common stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus), for which it is sometimes mistaken.[3]Yellow morels are often found near wooded areas. Centipedes sometimes make their home inside these morels; infested morels usually have a hole in the top.

Microscopic characteristics

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Thesporesrange from white to cream to slightly yellow in deposit, although aspore printmay be difficult to obtain given the shape of the fruit body.[4]The spores are formed inascilining the pits—the ridges are sterile.[5]They are ellipsoidal, smooth, thin-walled, translucent (hyaline), and measure 17.5–21.9 by 8.8–11.0μm.Theasciare eight-spored, 223–300 by 19–20 μm, cylindrical, and hyaline. Theparaphysesare filamentous, cylindrical, 5.8–8.8 μm wide, and hyaline.[6]

Thehyphaeof the stem are interwoven, hyaline, and measure 5.8–9.4 μm wide. The surface hyphae are inflated, spherical to pear-shaped, 22–44 μm wide, covered by a network of interwoven hyphae 11–16.8 μm wide with recurved cylindrical hyphal ends.

Development

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Fruit bodies have successfully been grown in the laboratory. R. Ower was the first to describe the developmental stages of ascomata grown in a controlled chamber.[7]This was followed by in-depth cytological studies by Thomas Volk and Leonard (1989, 1990). To study the morel life cycle they followed the development of ascoma fruiting in association with tuberous begonias (Begonia tuberhybrida), from very small primordia to fully developed fruit bodies.[8][9]

Young fruit bodies begin development in the form of a dense knot of hyphae, when suitable conditions of moisture and nutrient availability conditions have been reached. Hyphal knots are underground and cup-shaped for some time, but later emerge from the soil and develop into a stalked fruiting body. Further growth makes thehymeniumconvex with theascifacing towards the outer side. Because of the unequal growth of the surface of the hymenium, it becomes folded to form many ridges and depressions, resulting in the sponge or honeycomb appearance.[10]

Similar species

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Gyromitra esculenta, a deep rusty brown mushroom with brain- or coral-like ridges
Gyromitra esculenta,a poisonousM. esculentalookalike

Morchella esculentais probably the most familiar of the morels. In contrast toM. angusticepsand its relatives, the caps are light-colored throughout development, especially the ridges, which remain paler than the pits.M. crassipesis sometimes confused withM. esculenta.According to Smith (1975), the two are distinct, but young forms ofM. crassipesare difficult to separate fromM. esculenta.The two are similar in color, butM. crassipesis larger, often has thin ridges, and sometimes has a stem base that is enlarged and longitudinally grooved.[6]

Stinkhorns (esp.Phallus impudicus) have also been confused with morels,[11]but specimens of the former have avolvaat the base of the stem, and are covered withgleba—a slimy, foul-smelling spore mass.

See alsoGyromitra esculenta,which is similar in appearance but poisonous.

Taxonomy

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The fungus was originally namedPhallus esculentusbyCarl Linnaeusin hisSpecies Plantarum(1753),[12]and given its current name by Swedish mycologistElias Magnus Friesin 1801.[13][14]

Morchella esculentaiscommonlyknown by various names: morel, common morel, true morel, morel mushroom, yellow morel, sponge morel,[15]Molly Moocher, haystack, and dryland fish.[2]InNepalit is known asGuchi chyau.[16]Thespecific epithetis derived from theLatinesculenta,meaning "edible".

The scientific nameMorchella esculentahas been applied to many similar yellow morels throughout the world. In 2014 Richard et al. used DNA analysis to restrict theM. esculentaname to a single species of yellow morel commonly found in Europe and also reported from China.[17]Other species of yellow morel, including those in North America, have received new scientific names.

Distribution and habitat

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Drawing by von Albin Schmalfuß, 1897

Fruit bodies are sometimes solitary, but more often in groups, on the ground in a variety of habitats. A preference for soil with alimestonebase (alkaline) has been noted,[2]but they have also been found inacid soils.[18] The mushroom is usually found in early spring, in forests, orchards, yards, gardens and sometimes in recently burned areas.[1]In North America, it is sometimes referred to as the "May mushroom" due to its consistent fruiting in that month, but the time of fruiting varies locally, from February to July. It is typically the last morel species to fruit in locales where more than one species are found.[19]For example, in northern Canada and in cooler mountainous regions, morels typically do not appear until June.[20]It has been suggested that the springtime fruiting may be due to their ability to grow at low temperatures to the exclusion of competition,[21]a conclusion later corroborated by experiments correlating sporegerminationto soil temperatures.[22]

One author suggests the acronym PETSBASH may be used to remember the trees associated with morels:pine,elm,tulip,sassafras,beech,ash,sycamore,andhickory.[23]

In North America, it is widely distributed, but especially common in eastern North America and the Midwest.David Aroranotes that "large crops can also be found around the bases of dying (but not quite dead) elms attacked by Dutch elm disease."[11]The species has been named state mushroom ofMinnesota,and was the first state mushroom of any state.[24][25]

It can also be found in Brazil and Bulgaria.[26] InJammu and Kashmirwild mushrooms, locally known as Himalayan wild mushroom, Gucchi,Morchella conicaandMorchella esculenta,are gathered and supplied asmedical remedy.[27]

Cultivation

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Due to the mushroom's prized fruit bodies, several attempts have been made to grow the fungus in culture. In 1901, Repin reported successfully obtaining fruit bodies in a cave in which cultures had been established in flower pots nine years previously in 1892.[28]

Mycologist Taylor Piercefield developed a method using beds of hardwood tree saplings which would be inoculated with mycelium, concentrating on thesymbiotic relationship of Morchella esculenta.Later, once the mycelium network had been fully developed, the beds would be treated with potassium hydroxide to replicate the pH conditions found in soil after a forest fire. This method resulted in large, mature fruits, but was not commercially viable on a large scale. More recently, small scale commercial growers have had success growing morels by using partially shaded rows of mulched wood. The rows of mulch piles are inoculated with morel mushroom spores in a solution of water and molasses which are poured over the piles of mulch and then they are allowed to grow undisturbed for several weeks. A solution of wood ashes mixed in water and diluted is subsequently poured over the rows of wood mulch which triggers fruiting of the morels. Morels are known to appear after fires and the alkaline conditions produced by wood ash mixed with water initiate fruit body formation for most species of morels.[29]

Uses

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Edibility

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Harvested morels

Morchella esculenta,like all morels, are among the most highly prized of alledible mushrooms.[30]Raw morels have a gastrointestinal irritant,hydrazine(this has never been found in morel samples however it is assumed), butparboilingorblanchingbefore consumption will remove it. Old fruit bodies that show signs of decay may be poisonous.[4]The mushrooms may be fried in butter or baked after being stuffed with meats and vegetables.[31]The mushrooms may also be dried by threading the caps onto string and hanging them in the sun; this process is said to concentrate the flavour.[4]One study determined the main nutritional components to be as follows (on adry weightbasis):protein32.7%,fat2.0%,fiber17.6%,ash9.7%, andcarbohydrates38.0%.[32]

In one isolated case in Germany, six people were reported to have developedneurologiceffects between 6–12 hours after consumption. The effects includedataxiaand visual disturbances, and lasted up to a day before disappearing without enduring effects.[33]

Bioactive compounds

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Both the fruit bodies and the mycelia ofM. esculentacontain an uncommonamino acid,cis-3-amino-L-proline; this amino acid does not appear to be protein bound.[34]In addition toM. esculenta,the amino acid is known to exist only inM. conicaandM. crassipes.[35]

Industrial applications; solid state-fermentation

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Solid-state fermentationis an industrial process to produceenzymesand to upgrade the values of existing foods, especially foods from East Asia. Solid-state fermentation is a process whereby an insoluble substrate is fermented with sufficient moisture but without free water. Solid-state fermentation, unlike that of slurry state, requires no complex fermentation controls and has many advantages over submerged liquid fermentation.M. esculentahas shown promise in degradingstarchand upgrading the nutritional value of cornmeal during solid-state fermentation.[36]

M. esculentamycelia is able to bind to and inhibit the effects offuranocoumarins,chemicals found ingrapefruitthat inhibit humancytochrome p450enzymes and are responsible for the"grapefruit/drug" interaction phenomenon.[37]

References

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  1. ^abAmmirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE (1987).The New Savory Wild Mushroom.Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 209–10.ISBN0-295-96480-4.
  2. ^abcRoody WC. (2003).Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians.Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 485.ISBN0-8131-9039-8.Retrieved2010-03-22.
  3. ^Arora, David(1986).Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi.Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp.768–69.ISBN0-89815-169-4.
  4. ^abcHall IR. (2003).Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World.Portland, Or: Timber Press. pp. 239–42.ISBN0-88192-586-1.
  5. ^Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991).Mushrooms of Western Canada.Edmonton: Lone Pine Publishing. pp.381–82.ISBN0-919433-47-2.
  6. ^abAmmirati J, Traquair JA, Horgen PA (1985).Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada.Fitzhenry & Whiteside in cooperation with Agriculture Canada. pp. 287–88.ISBN978-0-88902-977-4.
  7. ^Ower R. (1982). "Notes on the development of the morel ascocarp:Morchella esculenta".Mycologia.74(1): 142–44.doi:10.2307/3792639.JSTOR3792639.
  8. ^Volk TJ, Leonard TJ (1989). "Experimental studies on the morel. I. Hetrokaryon formation between mono ascosporous strains ofMorchella".Mycologia.81(4): 523–31.doi:10.2307/3760127.JSTOR3760127.
  9. ^Volk T, Leonard T (1990). "Cytology of the life-cycle ofMorchella".Mycological Research.94(3): 399–406.doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80365-1.
  10. ^Sharma OP. (1988).Textbook of Fungi.Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education. pp. 193–96.ISBN0-07-460329-9.
  11. ^abArora D. (1986).Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi.Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp. 787–88.ISBN0-89815-169-4.Retrieved2010-03-22.
  12. ^Fries EM. (1753).Species Plantarum(in Latin). pp. 1178–79.Retrieved2010-03-21.
  13. ^Persoon CH. (1801).Synopsis Methodica Fungorum.Vol. 2. p. 618.Retrieved2010-03-21.[permanent dead link]
  14. ^Kuo M."Morchella esculenta".MushroomExpert.Com.Retrieved2010-03-26.
  15. ^Dörfelt H (2001)."Morchellaceae".In Hanelt P (ed.).Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops: (Except Ornamentals).Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Vol. 1. Springer. p. 17.ISBN9783540410171.Retrieved2013-02-09.
  16. ^National register of medicinal plants.IUCN-the World Conservation Union: His Majesty's Government, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. 2000. p. 61.ISBN978-92-9144-048-1.Retrieved2010-03-21.
  17. ^Richard, Franck; Bellanger, Jean-Michel; Clowez, Philippe; Courtecuisse, Regis; Hansen, Karen; O'Donnell, Kerry; Sauve, Mathieu; Urban, Alexander; Moreau, Pierre-Arthur (30 December 2014)."True morels (Morchella,Pezizales) of Europe and North America: evolutionary relationships inferred from multilocus data and a unified taxonomy ".Mycologia(Preliminary version published online).107(2): 359–382.doi:10.3852/14-166.PMID25550303.14-166.
  18. ^Metzler V, Metzler S (1992).Texas Mushrooms: a Field Guide.Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 330.ISBN0-292-75125-7.Retrieved2010-03-26.
  19. ^McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987).A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America.Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 322–23.ISBN0-395-91090-0.Retrieved2010-03-22.
  20. ^Bessette A, Fischer DH (1992).Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: a Field-to-Kitchen Guide.Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 134–35.ISBN0-292-72080-7.Retrieved2010-03-22.
  21. ^Baker KF, Cook RJ (1974).Biological control of plant pathogens.San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.ISBN0-7167-0589-3.
  22. ^Schmidt EL. (1983). "Spore germination of and carbohydrate colonization byMorchella esculentaat different soil temperatures ".Mycologia.75(5): 870–75.doi:10.2307/3792778.JSTOR3792778.
  23. ^Rosen S. (1982).A Judge Judges Mushrooms.Highlander Pr.ISBN0-913617-01-6.
  24. ^"Minnesota State Symbols: Minnesota State Mushroom".Minnesota Legislature.RetrievedJune 13,2011.
  25. ^"2010 Minnesota Statutes: 1.149 State Mushroom".Minnesota Office of the Revisor of Statutes.RetrievedJune 13,2011.
  26. ^Cortez VG, Coelho G, Guerrero RT (2004). "Morchella esculenta(Ascomycota): A rare species found in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil ".Biociencias (Porto Alegre)(in Portuguese).12(1): 51–53.
  27. ^JK Medicinal Plants Introduction Centre
  28. ^Repin C. (1901)."Sur la culture de la Morille".Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées.12:595–96.Retrieved2010-03-21.
  29. ^"YouTube".YouTube Growing Morels.2019-11-08.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-12-21.Retrieved2019-11-11.
  30. ^Phillips, Roger (2010).Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America.Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. p. 361.ISBN978-1-55407-651-2.
  31. ^Abel D, Horn B, Kay R (1993).A Guide to Kansas Mushrooms.Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. p. 63.ISBN0-7006-0571-1.
  32. ^Wahid M, Sattar A, Khan S (1988). "Composition of wild and cultivated mushrooms of Pakistan".Mushroom Journal for the Tropics.8(2): 47–51.
  33. ^Pfab R, Haberl B, Kleber J, Zilker T (2008). "Cerebellar effects after consumption of edible morels (Morchella conica,Morchella esculenta) ".Clinical Toxicology.46(3): 259–60.doi:10.1080/15563650701206715.PMID18344109.
  34. ^Hatanaka S-I. (1969). "A new amino acid isolated fromMorchella esculentaand related species ".Phytochemistry.8(7): 1305–08.Bibcode:1969PChem...8.1305H.doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)85571-5.
  35. ^Moriguchi M, Sada SI, Hatanaka SI (1979)."Isolation ofcis-3-amino-L-proline from cultered mycelia orMorchella esculenta".Applied and Environmental Microbiology.38(5): 1018–19.doi:10.1128/AEM.38.5.1018-1019.1979.PMC243624.PMID16345456.
  36. ^Zhang GP, Zhang F, Ru WM, Han JR (2009). "Solid-state fermentation of cornmeal with the ascomyceteMorchella esculentafor degrading starch and upgrading nutritional value ".World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.26(1): 15–20.doi:10.1007/s11274-009-0135-y.S2CID84930561.
  37. ^Myung K, Narciso JA, Manthey JA (2008)."Removal of furanocoumarins in grapefruit juice by edible fungi"(PDF).Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.56(24): 12064–68.doi:10.1021/jf802713g.PMID19012403.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-07-21.Retrieved2010-03-21.
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