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Mount Hasan

Coordinates:38°07′39″N34°10′00″E/ 38.12750°N 34.16667°E/38.12750; 34.16667
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For other uses, seeHassan (disambiguation).
Mount Hasan
View of Mount Hasan
Highest point
Elevation3,268 m (10,722 ft)[1]
Prominence1,922 m (6,306 ft)[1]
ListingUltra
Coordinates38°07′39″N34°10′00″E/ 38.12750°N 34.16667°E/38.12750; 34.16667[1]
Geography
Mount Hasan is located in Turkey
Mount Hasan
Mount Hasan
Turkey
LocationAksaray Province,Turkey
Geology
Mountain typeStratovolcano
Last eruption6200 BC

Mount Hasan(Turkish:Hasan Dağı) is avolcanoinAnatolia,Turkey.It has two summits, the 3,069 metres (10,069 ft) high eastern Small Hasan Dagi and the 3,253 metres (10,673 ft) high Big Hasan Dagi, and rises about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) above the surrounding terrain. It consists of various volcanic deposits, including severalcalderas,and its activity has been related to the presence of severalfaultsin the area and to regional tectonics.

Activity began in theMioceneand continued into theHolocene;a mural found in thearcheological siteofÇatalhöyükhas been controversially interpreted as showing a volcanic eruption or even a primitivemap.It was the second mountain from the south in theByzantine beacon systemused to warn the Byzantine capital ofConstantinopleof incursions during theArab–Byzantine wars.

Etymology[edit]

The modern name of Mount Hasan is widely accepted to be in dedication to Ebu'l-Gazi (El-Hasan), brother ofEbu'l-Kasımduring the reign of theAnatolian Seljuks.It is hypothesized that Mount Hasan’s name was “Argeos”or “Argaios”,but this name belongs toMount Erciyes. Another hypothesis is that it was simply calledÁrgos,(Ancient Greek:Ἄργος) as well as Argeiopolis Mons. TheHittitescalled itAthar.[2]

Geography and geomorphology[edit]

A street of Aksaray with Mount Hasan in the background
Mount Hasan viewed from the north in a sunset

Mount Hasan lies in the Anatolian plateau, between theTaurus Rangeand thePontic Mountains,[3]and its andMount Erciyes's silhouettes dominate the landscape[4]and rise high above the surrounding terrain.[5]The city ofAksaraylies 30–40 kilometres (19–25 mi) northwest from Mount Hasan,[6]while the settlements ofHelvadere,Uluören,DikmenandTaşpınarlie clockwise from north to northwest around the volcano.[7]In addition, there are seasonal settlements on the volcano which are associated with summerpastures.[8]

Mount Hasan is part of a larger volcanic province in Central Anatolia[9]known as the Central Anatolian orCappadocianVolcanic Province.,[10]which includesignimbrites,monogeneticvolcanic fieldsandstratovolcanoessuch asMount Erciyes,Mount Hasan,[9]Karacadağ[11][9][12]and Melendiz Dağ[9]with an area of about 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi)[13]-25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi).[14]Volcanism took place during thePlio-Pleistoceneand into theQuaternary.[9]

The volcano has two summits, the 3,069 metres (10,069 ft) high eastern Small Hasan Dagi/Küçük Hasandağand the 3,253 metres (10,673 ft) high Big Hasan Dagi/Büyük Hasandağ;both are located within acaldera[7][15]and consist oflava domesandlava flows.Big Hasan Dagi has two nestedcraterswith an 800 metres (2,600 ft) wide and 200 metres (660 ft) high inner cone that is the source of alava flow.[16]Fossilrock glaciersare found on the volcano.[17]The volcano as a whole rises almost 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) around the surrounding terrain[18]and covers an area of 760 square kilometres (290 sq mi) with 354 cubic kilometres (85 cu mi) of rocks.[19]The terrain of Mount Hasan is formed byphreatomagmaticbreccias,ignimbrites,lahardeposits,lava domes,lava flowsandpyroclastic flowdeposits.[7]The pyroclastic flow deposits occur in the form of fans or valley flows, when they were channelled by topography.[20]The northern flanks also feature two[21]debris avalanche deposits with hummocky surfaces.[22]A second caldera lies on the southeastern flank.[23]The volcanics of Mount Hasan have been subdivided into a "hot flow" unit, a "Mt. Hasan ashes" unit and into a lava unit.[24]

Cinder cones,maarsand accompanying lava flows also occur around Mount Hasan, they are part of abasalticvolcano family[25]that formsparasitic vents.[20]These include theYıpraktepecone/maar[26]and a lava flow field atKarataşwhich covers an area of 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) and was produced byfissure vents.[27]Many of the cones around Mount Hasan have been grouped as the Hasandağ-Karacadağ volcanic field.[28]

Geology[edit]

As a consequence of thesubductionand eventual closure of theNeo-Tethys[14]and continental collision betweenArabia-AfricaandEurasia,[29]Anatoliamoves westward between theNorth Anatolian Faultand theEast Anatolian Fault.This movement and the resulting tectonic deformation of Anatolia are responsible for volcanism in Central Anatolia[9]which has been ongoing for the past 10 million years;[30]this volcanism is defined as "post-collisional".[31]Further, volcanism at Mount Hasan has been related to the Tuz Gölü Fault[32]and its intersection with the Karaman-Aksaray faults;[33]the former of these is one of two major fault systems in Central Anatolia which influence volcanism there,[30]and volcanic products of Mount Hasan have been deformed by the fault.[34]The Hasandag fault branches off the Karaman-Aksaray fault and cuts between the two summits of Mount Hasan.[35]It and the Karacaören fault influence the hydrothermal system of the volcano.[36]

The westerly Mount Hasan, centralKeçiboyduran[37]and easterlyMelendiz Dağ[38]form amountain range,which is surrounded by plains and whose summits reach heights of over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). Of these mountains,Melendiz Dağis more heavily eroded compared to the steep cones of Hasan[39]and likeKeçiboyduranis of earlyPlioceneage.[40]This alignment is congruent with the tectonic patterns of Anatolia, where the collision between Africa and Eurasia follows the same trend.[41]It and to some degree Mount Hasan are also surrounded by a large depression,[42]and the volcanoes of this alignment are separated by faults.[43]Additionally, Mount Hasan forms a volcaniclineamentwithKaradağand theKarapınar Field.[12]

Thebasementin Central Anatolia is formed by magmatic,metamorphicandophioliticrocks, the former of which are ofPaleozoictoMesozoicage;[30]it crops out at scattered sites and in the Kirshehir and Nigde massifs.[34]The surface however consists mainly ofTertiaryvolcanic rocks,[44]which are formed both byvolcaniclasticmaterial and individual volcanoes.[34]Central Anatolia has undergone uplift, for which several mechanisms have been proposed.[14]

Composition[edit]

Mount Hasan has produced volcanic rocks with compositions ranging frombasalttorhyolitebut the dominant components areandesiteanddacite[45]which define an oldertholeiiticand a youngercalc-alkaline[46]or alkaline suite.[31]These rocks in turn includeamphibole,apatite,biotite,clinopyroxene,[47]garnet,[48]ilmenite,mica,[47]olivine,[49]orthopyroxene,plagioclase,[50]pyroxene[19]in the form ofaugite,bronzite,diopside,hyperstheneandsalite,[51]andquartz.[50]The older volcanic stages have producedbasaltic andesite[52]while dacite appears only in the most recent stage.[49]Obsidianalso occurs in the most recent stage[45]although it is not an important component[53]while most of the rocks areporphyritic.[47]The basaltic family includes bothbasaltic andesiteandalkali basaltswithaugite,clinopyroxene,garnet,hornblende,hypersthene,olivine,orthopyroxene,oxidesandplagioclase.[48][54]

Magma mixing processes appear to be the most important mechanisms involved in the genesis of Mount Hasanmagmas,[55]which are derived from themantlewith participation ofcrustalcomponents.[56]Evidence offractional crystallizationhas been encountered in the most recent stage rocks[49]and more generally plays a role in the genesis of Hasan magmas[57]although it does not explain all of the compositional traits.[58]It appears that basaltic andesites formed through mixing, while fractional crystallization was more important for the genesis of other magmas.[59]Older volcanic stages also show evidence ofsubductioninfluence[60]while the more recent magmas are more indicative of intraplate processes,[61]the effects of crustal extension[62]and of the presence of water.[63]In general, various sources have been proposed for the magmas of the Central Anatolian province.[14]

The magmas formed at different depths, with basalts originating at about 35–41 kilometres (22–25 mi) depth at the base of thecrust,while the other volcanic rocks have shallower sources.[64]The basaltic magmas would have ascended into a shallowmagma chamberat 3–4 kilometres (1.9–2.5 mi) depth, mobilizing its contents and thus giving rise to the more silicic magmas.[65]The magma formation processes were quick, with only days or weeks going from the formation of the magma and its eruption on the surface.[66]

Ecology and hydrology[edit]

An ancient orthodox church known as St. Analipsis on Analipsis Hill, with Mount Hasan in the background. The Melendiz River can be seen in the bottom left.

Oakforests occur on Mount Hasan.[67]Annual precipitation is about 400 millimetres (16 in).[68]Between October/November and May, the mountain is frequently covered bysnowdue to the common precipitation at that time and when it melts the water mostly infiltrates into the permeable rocks,[69]making the volcano a principal groundwater recharge area in the region.[70]Additionally, volcanics of Mount Hasan form a majoraquifer[71]and the Melendiz River passes north and northeast of the volcano.[37]

Eruption history[edit]

Mount Hasan has been active for the last 13 million years, with theKeçikalesi,Paleo-Hasan, Mesovolcano and Neovolcano stages during theMiocene,Miocene-PlioceneandQuaternary;[19]the older two stages might actually not be part of Mount Hasan at all.[62]Aside from thefelsiccentral vent volcanism, basaltic volcanism also took place at Mount Hasan throughout its activity;[16]this activity has been dated to 120,000, 65,000[72]and the most recent event 34,000 years ago.[46]This volcanism however is not part of the actual Mount Hasan system.[73]The main edifice has produced about 1–0.3 cubic kilometres (0.240–0.072 cu mi) of magma every millennium, more than at Erciyes.[74][75]

Keçikalesiis the oldest (13 million years) volcanic structure,[19]it is among the oldest volcanoes of the Central Anatolian volcanic province.[76]This volcano is a small sized volcano with acalderawhich crops out on the southwestern side of Mount Hasan. It grew over sediments to a present-day elevation of 1,700 metres (5,600 ft); today it is eroded, partly buried by the younger Hasan volcanics[19]and disrupted bystrike-slip faulting.About 7 million years ago the Paleovolcano began to grow north ofKeçikalesi;it too is buried by more recent volcanics but part of its deposits crop out on the northwestern flank of Mount Hasan in the form of ignimbrites, lahars and lava flows.[50]The Paleovolcano also formed a caldera which produced the rhyolitic Dikmen-Taspinar Ignimbrites;[72]formerly the Cappadociantuffswere in general attributed to volcanism at Mount Hasan, Mount Erciyes andGöllü Dag.[77]

TheQuaternaryactivity gave rise to the Mesovolcano and Neovolcano, with the former centered between the two present-day summits. This volcano produced ignimbrites, lava domes and lava flows and eventually acaldera;it too has been dissected byfaultingwhich probably also influenced the development of the volcano[50]and its activity probably occurred between 1 and 0.15 million years ago.[78]Finally, the Neovolcano grew within the caldera, producing various kinds of deposits; these includelava domeswith accompanyingpyroclastic flowdeposits,brecciain the rim of the Mesovolcano caldera[50]that probably formed through the interaction of intrudingmagmawith water in the caldera,[20]700,000 years agorhyoliticflows and ignimbrites accompanied by the formation of another, 4 by 5 kilometres (2.5 mi × 3.1 mi) caldera, and finallyandesiticlava flows and lava domes which form the two main summits. Small Mount Hasan is probably older as it is more heavily eroded while the morphology of Big Hasan Dagi is fresher[16]although its pyroclastic flow deposits are heavily incised. Dates of 33,000 and 29,000 years ago have been obtained on the summit domes[22]and ages of 66,000±7,000 years on the most recentmonogenetic volcanosouth of Mount Hasan.[79]Explosive eruptions took place 28,900 ± 1,500 and 13,500 ± 1,500 years ago.[80]Tephras found in theKonyaplain[81]and in a lake of theTurkish Lakes Regionhave been attributed to Mount Hasan.[82]The debris flow from Mount Hasan occurred 150,000-100,000 years ago[83]and a number oflava flowswere emplaced during the last 100,000 years.[84]

Holocene and present activity[edit]

Eruptions occurred 8,970 ± 640,[22]8,200, less than 6,000 years ago[50]and 0 ± 3,000 years ago; the first emplacedpumiceon the summit, the penultimate of these formed a lava dome on the northern flank while the last formed a lava flow on Mount Hasan's western foot.[22][85]A shift inarcheological sitesaround Mount Hasan may be linked to the older eruptions.[86]

Hydrothermalactivity also occurs at Mount Hasan,[87]withfumarolesand water vapour emissions on the summit.[88]The emission occurs along vents trending in a northeast-southwest direction, which are linked to a major regionalfault.[89]Rocks around these vents have been chemically altered.[90]Magnetotelluricimaging has found evidence of amagma chamberat 4–6 kilometres (2.5–3.7 mi) depth[91]and of a possible hydrothermal system.[92]Aseismic swarmoccurred southwest of Mount Hasan in 2020[93]next to acinder conethat was active 2000 years ago,[94]and reportedly there are frequent explosions within the volcano.[95]As of 2022the volcano is not monitored.[96]

Possible portrayal of an eruption in a mural from Çatalhöyük[edit]

The ancient town of Mokissos and Mount Hasan

Amuraldiscovered inÇatalhöyükhas been interpreted as showing a volcanic eruption, commonly linked to Mount Hasan, and this mural has even been interpreted as being the oldest knownmap.The interpretation of the mural showing a volcanic eruption has been contested however[97]as an alternative interpretation is that the "volcano" shown in the mural is actually aleopardand the "village" a set of random geometric motifs.[98][18]The map interpretation is also contested.[97]

If the mural indeed shows an eruption, it probably occurred only a short time before the mural was drawn.Radiocarbon datinghas yielded ages of about 7,400 - 6,600 yearsBCEfor Çatalhöyük[97]andradiometric datinghas produced evidence forexplosive eruptionsduring the time that Çatalhöyük was inhabited.[99]The recorded eruption probably was a lava dome eruption and a possible although disputed reconstruction of a mural recording the eruption is inMuseum of Anatolian CivilizationsinAnkara. [16][100]The discovery of this mural has drawn attention to the volcano[15]and has led to efforts to date the eruptive activity of Mount Hasan.[101]

Importance during ancient history[edit]

Mount Hasan was used as a source forObsidian.[102][103]TheByzantinecity ofMokissoswas located on Mount Hasan.[104]The mountain is considered to be the second beacon of theByzantine beacon system,which was used to relay information from theTaurus Mountainsto the Byzantine capitalConstantinople.[105]

Gallery[edit]

  • A panorama of Güzelyurt with Mount Hasan
    A panorama of Güzelyurt with Mount Hasan

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

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