Muisca economy

Early Spanish chroniclerPedro Simónas many contemporaneous writers had particular views of the Muisca economy. Modern anthropologists have revised many of the exploitational ideas of the Spanish colonisers

Muiscamummieswere carried on the backs of theguecha warriorsto impress their enemies

TheMuisca Confederationwas the confederation of Muisca rulers predating the current departments ofCundinamarcaandBoyacá

The flatBogotá savannais the result of thePleistoceneLake Humboldt. The fertile lacustrine soils mixed with volcanic ashes proved very advantageous to the Muisca agriculture

This article describes theeconomyof theMuisca.TheMuiscawere the original inhabitants of theAltiplano Cundiboyacense,the high plateau in theEastern Rangesof central present-dayColombia.Their rich economy and advanced merchant abilities were widely known by the indigenous groups of the area and described by the Spanishconquistadoreswhose primary objective was the acquisition of the mineral resources ofTierra Firme;gold,emeralds,carbon,silverandcopper.

The Muisca economy was self-sufficient regarding the basicsupplies,thanks to the advanced technologies of the agriculture on raised terraces by the people. The system of trade was well established providing both the highersocial classesand the general population abundances of gold, feathers, marine snails, coca, yopo and otherluxury goods.Markets were held every four to eight days in various settlements throughout theMuisca Confederationand special markets were organised around festivities where merchants from far outside the Andes were trading their goods with the Muisca.

Apart from agriculture, the Muisca were well developed in the production of different crafts, using the raw materials traded with surrounding indigenous peoples. Famous are the golden andtumbagaobjects made by the Muisca. Cotton mantles, cloths and nets were made by theMuisca womenand traded for valuable goods, tropical fruits and small cotton cloths were used as money. The Muisca were unique in South America for having real coins of gold, calledtejuelos.

Mining was an important source of income for the Muisca, who were called "The Salt People" because of their salt mines inZipaquirá,NemocónandTausa.Like their western neighbours, theMuzo-who were called "The Emerald People" - they minedemeraldsin their territories, mainly inSomondoco.Carbonwas found throughout the region of the Muisca inEocenesediments and used for the fires for cooking and the production of salt and golden ornaments.

As the clear objective of the Spanish colonisers was to gain access to the rich mineral resources and the golden figures made by the Muisca, many primary accounts of the Muisca economy have been considered biased, misinterpreted or even outright false by later scholars.Pedro de Aguado,Pedro Simón,Juan de Castellanos,Juan de los Barrios,first conquistadorGonzalo Jiménez de Quesadaand many others have written about the economy of the Muisca. Later research, in many cases nuancing or even refuting the scriptures of the early Spanish writers, has been conducted byCarl Henrik Langebaek,Marianne Cardale de Schrimpff,Sylvia Broadbent,Jorge Gamboa Mendoza,Javier Ocampo Lópezand others.

Background

In the times before theSpanish conquest of the Muisca,the central part of present-day Colombia; the Eastern Ranges of the ColombianAndeswas inhabited by the Muisca who were organised in a loose confederation ofrulers.The central authorities ofBacatáin the south andHunzain the north were calledzipaandzaquerespectively. Other rulers were theiracapriest in sacred City of the SunSugamuxi,theTundamaofTundamaand various othercaciques(chiefs). The Muisca spokeChibcha,in their own language calledMuysccubun;"language of the people".

The Muisca, different from the other three great civilizations of the Americas; theMaya,Aztecs,andInca,did not build grand stonearchitecture,yet their settlements were relatively small and consisted ofbohíos;circular houses of wood and clay, organised around a central market square with the house of thecaciquein the centre. Roads were present to connect the settlements with each other and with the surrounding indigenous groups, of which theGuaneandLacheto the north, thePancheandMuzoto the west andGuayupe,AchaguaandTeguato the east were the most important.

The Muisca were polytheistic and theirreligionandmythologywas closely connected with the natural area they were inhabiting. They had a thorough understanding ofastronomical parametersand developed a complexluni-solar calendar;theMuisca calendar.According to the calendar they had specific times for sowing, harvest and the organisation of festivals where theysang, danced and played musicand drank their national drinkchichain great quantities.

The Muiscamummifiedthe most respected members of their community and the mummies were not buried, yet displayed in theirtemples,in natural locations such as caves and even carried on their backs duringwarfareto impress their enemies.

Theirartis the most famous remnant of their culture, as living spaces, temples and other existing structures have been destroyed by the Spanish who colonised the Muisca territories. A primary example of their fine goldworking is theMuisca raft,together with more objects made of gold,tumbaga,ceramics and cotton displayed in theMuseo del OroinBogotá,the ancient capital of the southern Muisca.

Muisca economy

Accounts of the Spanish conquistadores show the Muisca had a highly advanced and specialised economy based on a variety of sources of income. The main foundation of their economy was the agricultural development using raised terraces on the fertile plains and valleys of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. Thecaciquesdid not control the production directly although surpluses were distributed among them.Excavations at thearchaeological siteEl Infiernitodid not provide evidence of a power structure based on economical differences. Social complexity and advanced status of economies are often measured based on the specialisation in craft production. The specialised crafts form an economical advantage and sign of social prestige over competing communities. This has been theorised in the case of the Muisca economy, yet certain research restricted to the Bogotá area has found little evidence to support that thesis. Explanations for the lack of archaeological evidence on wealth differences and relations between higher social classes and wealth have been given in the form of methodological issues, ethnohistorical exaggerations by the Spanish looking for gold and sampling issues.

The biased views of the Spanish on the Muisca economy and other characteristics of the Muisca society have been noted by various scholars and in recent years a re-examination of those primary accounts has been conducted, among others byJorge Gamboa Mendoza.

All the 16th century Spanish chroniclers agree upon the trading advantage the Muisca had. One of them wasJuan de los Barrioswho wrote that the Muisca men were traders (hipain theChibcha language) and extremely able in such matters; "The Muisca were so sharp in their dealings that no other Indian could equal them in matters of such dazzling ingenuity".The early Spanish writers have reported that the Muisca paid tribute to othercaciques.It has been suggested, for instance byCarl Henrik Langebaek,that those "tributes" were a misinterpretation of the Spanish. The Chibcha verb "to give, to present" waszebquiscaand the word for "to give" waszequasca,zemniscaorzequitusuca.

Agriculture

Main article:Muisca agriculture

Agriculture was the main source of income for the Muisca who were generally self-sustaining due to the fertility of the soils of the Altiplano, especially on the Bogotá savanna. The fertility originates from the lake deposits, the result of thePleistoceneLake Humboldtthat existed until around 30,000 years BP and which remnants are still visible today; the various lakes andwetlands(humedales) of the Altiplano. Other prehistorical and historical lakes were present in the other valleys of the high plateau; theUbaté-Chiquinquirá Valley,Iraka Valleyand theTenza Valley.When the lakes dried up, they left leveled fertile soils which were used by the Muisca to cultivate a large variety of crops, mainlymaize,tubers,beans.quinoaandpotatoes.The fertility of the Bogotá savanna was enhanced by the deposition ofNeogenevolcanic ashes.Fruits were cultivated inSomondocoandSubachoque.The highest population density was related to the richest agricultural lands, mainly on the Bogotá savanna.

To ensure a subsistence economy, the Muisca irrigated their lands and varied their cultivation over different climatic zones. The geography of the area allowed for micro-ecological regions providing farmlands on the fertile plains and in higher altitude terrains such as mountain slopes. Quinoa and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were cultivated on the highest altitudes, maize andcocain the temperate regions and yuca,arracacha,pineapples,tobaccoandcottonin the low-lying valleys with a warmer climate.Additionally,Cucurbita maxima,Oxalis tuberosa(oca),peppersandUllucus tuberosuswere cultivated by the Muisca.The surplus of the agricultural production was available for trading on the many markets throughout the Muisca territories.

In the northern areas ofVélez,SurubáandHunza,the topographical variability allowed for the cultivation ofcottonandyucaand latersugarcane.The dramatic variations in temperature and rainfall together with the irrigation from the riversSuárez,Chicamocha,Opón andCarareprovided a sophisticated and diverse economic system.Irrigation canals and raised terraces were built throughout the area, important ones inFacatativá,Chocontá,TocancipáandTunja.

The favourable climate of the lower altitude areas, such as the Valley ofTena,allowed for two maize harvests a year, while on the cooler Bogotá savanna only one harvest per year was possible.

Hunting and fishing

The Muisca obtained most of their meat and fish by hunting and fishing. The many rivers and lakes on the Altiplano provided rich resources in fish, especially the lakesFúqueneandTota.Hunting and fishing were activities performed by the Muisca men, while theMuisca womencared for the sowing, cloth production and ceramics elaboration. Domestication ofguinea pigsstarted already in theHerrera Periodaround 500 BCE. Evidence for this has been discovered atTequendama IVamong other sites.

Mining

Saltwas mined inNemocón,Tausa and Zipaquirá, giving the Muisca the name "The Salt People"

Emeraldswere exploited using pits dug next to the formation. Because the emeralds from Somondoco were in sedimentary rocks, they would wash clean into the pits during the rainy season

The territories of the Muisca contained rich mineral resources of various kinds.Saltwas mainly extracted inZipaquirá,NemocónandTausawith minor mining activity inSesquilé,Gámeza,andGuachetá.Emeraldswere mined inSomondoco,CoscuezandUbalá.Carbonexploitation was executed inSugamuxi,TópagaandGámeza.Copper mining took place inGachantivá,MoniquiráandSumapaz.Gold andsilverdeposits were not common in the Muisca area and mostly obtained through trade. The mining of emeralds was conducted usingcoas,long thick wooden poles. The people dug holes during the rainy seasons next to the emerald-containing rocks and the emeralds from sedimentary rocks would wash into the holes that dried up and provided the clean emeralds. Emeralds from veins inmetamorphic rockswere excavated using sharp poles. Carbon was a common resource in the Muisca territory and was found mainly in theBogotáandGuaduas Formations.The process of exploitation was similar to the emeralds, using pointed wooden sticks.

Production

Apart from agriculture and mining, production was an important economic activity of the Muisca. Raw materials for the production ofgoldenandtumbagaobjects,cottoncloths andceramicswere mostly traded with neighbouring indigenous groups, or the result of extraction within the Muisca Confederation, such as clays from the many rivers on the Altiplano.

Ceramics

The ceramics of the Muisca were elaborated by the women. They were used for cooking, preparation of chicha and as trading materials with other indigenous groups

The Muisca were notable for their ceramics production and major production was located close to rivers and lakes. The surroundings of Lake Fúquene formed a principal place for ceramics production, especially inRáquiraandTinjacá.The Spanish called the people from this region "Pottery People". Other important clay and ceramic producing settlements wereSoacha,Cogua,Guatavita,GachancipáandTocancipáon the Bogotá savanna andTutazá,Ráquira,Sutamarchán(Boyacá) andGuascaandSuescato the north of the flat plains. The production of pottery was the task assigned to the Muisca women who produced various ceramics such asanthropomorphicvases, cups and mugs, the typical bowls calledmúcura,pans, the large pots for salt extraction (gacha) and jars with two, four or six holds. The pots were decorated with colourful paints and stylilisedserpentorfrogfigures.

Goldworking

The Muisca were famous for the finegoldworking,here seen in different figures

Most famous were the Muisca for their goldworking. The majority of historical artefacts in the world are made of gold andtumbaga,a copper-gold-silver alloy. Gold was not common in the Muisca territories as a primary resource and was obtained through trade. The primary site for goldworking wasGuatavita,close to thesacred lakewhich shares its name,Lake Guatavita.A range of objects was made of the precious minerals; crowns, nose rings, pectorals, earrings, diadems,tunjos(small anthropomorphic or zoomorphic offer pieces), brooches, scepters, coins (tejuelo) and tools.

To produce their objects, the people used melting pots, torches and ovens. Thetumbagawas poured into heated stone moulds filled with beeswax to elaborate the desired figures. The heat would melt the wax and leave space for the gold to replace it. The advanced techniques produced highly stylilised figures.

Weaving

Cottonwas an important raw product for the Muisca, grown in the lower altitude areas. The women wove mantles, bags, small cloths serving as money and nets from it

The weaving was performed by the women and used the cotton cultivated in the warmer climates, traded for salt or ceramics. Woodenspindlesand clay rolls were used to perform the weaving of braided or tied cloths and mantles. Also nets were made of cotton. Needles were made of gold or bone. The cloths were painted black, red and other colours with clay rollers and pencils. As paint the Muisca women used indigo, woodlice (purple),saffron(gold), plants of theacanthusfamily andBocconia frutescens(orange) and other natural inks.

Trade

Early chroniclerJuan de Castellanosnoted that the Muisca were "more traders than fighters".Trading was performed using salt, small cotton cloths and larger mantles and ceramics asbarter trade.Also flat dishes made of gold were used as coins. Thesetejuelowere plain round disks of 1 centimetre (0.39 in), 4 centimetres (1.6 in) or 5 centimetres (2.0 in) diameter.Tejuelohave been found inGuayatáin theTenza Valley.This monetary system using coins was unique among the South American indigenous peoples.

Every four days markets were active inBacatá,Hunza,ZipaquiráandTurmequé.Other important market settlements wereChocontá,Pacho,Tocancipá,FunzaandSomondoco.According toPedro Simón,the Muisca held markets every eight days.Sorocotá,along the Suárez River was a major market town for trade with theGuanewhere gold fromGirónand the Carare River area was traded for emeralds from Somondoco. Also tropical fruits that didn't grow on the high plateau in the Andes were sold here. The town ofLa Tora,present-day Barrancabermeja, was important for trade with the Caribbean coast and the major source for the highly regarded marine snail shells, elaborated with gold by theTairona.

Trade with the lowland people of theLlanos Orientaleshappened alongtrade routesacross the Eastern Ranges. The crossings over rivers were made with ropes. Products asyopo,bee wax and honey, cotton, fish and fruits were traded with the Llanos peoplesGuayupe,AchaguaandTegua.Also the precious colourful feathers of exotic birds, used for the Muisca crowns were traded with the Llanos, that provided animal skins such asjaguarsfor the hats of thecaciquesas well. While archaeological evidence suggests the trade was mainly inside the Muisca terrain, the low preservation degree of certain objects may well have biased that conclusion.

The cotton, important for the weaving of mantles both for clothing on the relatively cold Altiplano, came from northern and eastern regions. The northern circle of trade was centered around Sugamuxi and Tundama and the eastern trade dominated by the markets inTeusacá,Chocontá and Suesca.Coca trade concentrated in the north aroundMotavitaandChitagotoas well asSoatá.The merchants from Paipa would travel the 80 kilometres (50 mi) from the city to Soatá to buy coca which was sold again on the market in Tunja, 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the south.

At certain times according to theMuisca calendar,the people organised bigger markets during their festivities where people from farther away would come and trade their products. One of the most important of thoseferiaswere held close to the banks of theMagdalena River,to the west of the Muisca territories inPancheandMuzoterrains.Here, gold and tropical fruits asavocadoes,guayabas,ice cream beans,star applesand various members (guanabana,chirimoyaand others) of theAnnonafamily were obtained, traded for mantles, emeralds and salt.Other big festivity markets were organised inCoyaima,on the banks of theSaldaña Riverand close toNeiva,area of thePijao.

Colonial period

A Spanishencomenderoabusing an indigenous American person

See also:Muisca Confederation § Early colonial period

Soon after the arrival of the Spanish, a system ofencomenderoswas installed in theNew Kingdom of Granada,as Colombia was called after 1537, where thecaciquesof the Muisca settlements were forced to pay tributes to the Spanish every six months.The previously self-sustaining economy was quickly transformed into intensive agriculture and mining that created a change in the landscape and culture of the Muisca.The indigenous inhabitants were forced to work the farmlands and mines for the Spanish, who importedslavesfrom Africa in addition to the Muisca labour.The European settlers used the Muisca economy, where gold was exchanged for cotton, salt, emeralds, mantles and other products to avoid paying thequinta realtax to the Spanish crown, which was based on gold. Where the first settlers required the Muisca chiefs to pay their tributes to the new reign in gold, later payments were done using the replacement products that were then changed to gold at the markets ofPamplonaandMariquita.In 1558, 20 years after the victory of the Spanish conquistadores over the Muisca, a letter to the Spanish crown revealed that more than 11,000 pesos were lost per year in evaded tax payments due to the system of trade via other products than gold.

Modern age

Golden sea snailin the collection of the Museo del Oro in Bogotá. The Muisca obtained the precious sea snails from theTaironaat markets to the north of their territories, e.g. in Barrancabermeja

Remaining of the Muisca economy in the present are the many markets throughout central Colombia, theemerald mining(Colombia is the most productive country worldwide of the greenberylgemstone, producing 70–90% of their finest quality ones)and the elaboration of cloths and pottery. Collection of Muisca economical products are displayed in the famousGold Museumin Bogotá, theArchaeology museumofSogamoso,theColombian National Museumand other smaller museums on the Altiplano.

See also

• Muisca
• Muisca agriculture
• Maya economy
• Aztec,Inca economy

References

Bibliography

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