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Mukti Bahini

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Mukti Bahini
মুক্তিবাহিনী (Freedom Fighters)
LeadersM. A. G. Osmani,Commander-in-Chief
M. A. Rab,Chief of Staff
A K Khandker,Deputy Chief of Staff
Dates of operationMarch–December 1971
Group(s)Bangladesh Army
∟K Force
∟S Force
∟Z Force
Bangladesh Navy
Bangladesh Air Force
Bangladesh Rifles
Bangladesh Ansar
Bangladesh Police
Special Guerrilla Forces
∟Gono Bahini
∟Mujib Bahini
∟Kader Bahini
∟Hemayet Bahini
∟Afsar Bahini
Crack Platoon
MotivesIndependence of Bangladesh
Active regionsEast Pakistan
IdeologyBengali nationalism
Republicanism
Size180,000
Part ofProvisional Government of Bangladesh[1]
AlliesIndia
Soviet Union
OpponentsPakistan
Battles and warsBattle of Gazipur
Battle of Goalhati
Battle of Garibpur
Battle of Kamalpur
Battle of Dhalai
Battle of Rangamati
Battle of Kushtia
Battle of Daruin
Operation Barisal
Operation Jackpot
Operation Hotel Intercontinental(Conducted by Special Forces)
War flag

TheMukti Bahini,[a]also known as theBangladesh Forces,was the guerrillaresistance movementconsisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during theBangladesh Liberation Warthat transformedEast PakistanintoBangladeshin 1971.[2]They were initially called theMukti Fauj.[3]

On 7 March 1971Sheikh Mujibur Rahmanissued a call to the people ofEast Pakistanto prepare themselves for an all-out struggle.[4]Later that evening resistance demonstrations began,[4]and the military began a full-scale retaliation withOperation Searchlight,which continued through May 1971.[4][5][6]

A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under theProvisional Government of Bangladesh.The military council was headed by GeneralM. A. G. Osmani[7]and elevensector commanders.[8]TheBangladesh Armed Forceswere established on 4 April 1971. The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were theZ Forceled by MajorZiaur Rahman,theK Forceled by MajorKhaled Mosharrafand theS Forceled by MajorK M Shafiullah.Awami Leaguestudent leaders formed militia units, including theMujib Bahini,theKader BahiniandHemayet Bahini.[8]TheCommunist Party of Bangladesh,led by ComradeMoni Singh,and activists from theNational Awami Partyalso operated several guerrilla battalions.[9]

Usingguerrilla warfaretactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "ambushandsabotage"campaigns,[10]and included the nascentBangladesh Air Forceand theBangladesh Navy.The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons fromIndia,[11]where people inWest Bengalshared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan.[12]

During theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971,the Mukti Bahini became part of theBangladesh-India Allied Forces.[13]It was instrumental in securing theSurrender of Pakistanand the liberation ofDhakaand other cities in December 1971.[13][14]

History[edit]

Background[edit]

East Pakistancampaignedagainst the usage ofUrduas the soleofficial languageofPakistan.TheAwami Leaguehad won the majority in the1970 Pakistani general election.Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government.[15]Bengaliwas the only language inPakistannot written in thePersian-Arabic script.Themergerof the provinces ofWest Pakistaninto one administrative "unit" caused great suspicion inEast Pakistan.[16]Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy toEast Bengaland Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation.[17]The1970 Bhola Cyclonehad caused the death of at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for a slow relief response, which created resentment in the population ofEast Pakistan.The resentment helped the Awami League to win 160 of the 162 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 300 seat parliament of Pakistan.[18][19]After the 1970 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. In March 1971, General Yahya Khan suspended theNational Assembly of Pakistan.[20]

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course (Suhrawardy Udyan) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence".[21]East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcastingRabindranathsongs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army.[22]The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel ofBengaliorigin in theEast Pakistan Rifles,the police and the regular army. The Bengali officersmutiniedagainst the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers fromWest Pakistan.[23]The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers, who escaped toIndiaand formed the main body of the Mukti Bahini.[24]Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day.[25][26]The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.[27]

Early resistance[edit]

Flag of Bangladeshin 1971, used during theBangladesh Liberation War.

On 25 March,martial lawwas declared,Sheikh Mujibur Rahmanwas arrested andOperation Searchlightstarted in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and theAwami Leaguewas banned. Members of the Awami league, theEast Pakistan Rifles,theEast Bengal Regimentand others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini.[28]When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance.[29]Five battalions of theEast Bengal Regimentmutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh.[30]

On 27 March,Major Ziaur Rahmandeclared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers.[22]InDhaka,West Pakistani forces began the1971 Bangladesh genocidewith themassacre at Dhaka University.Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply.Chittagongexperienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces.[citation needed]TheBangladeshi Declaration of Independencewas broadcast fromKalurghatRadio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman.[28]

Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, includingBrahmanbaria,Faridpur,Barisal,Mymensingh,ComillaandKushtiaamong others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included theBattle of Kamalpur,theBattle of Daruinand theBattle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterwayin the Chittagong Hill Tracts.[31]

On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan inKolkatadefected and hoisted theflag of Bangladesh.[32]On 17 April, theMujibnagar Governmentwas formed.[33]

During May, Foreign MinisterZulfikar Ali BhuttoaskedGeneral Yahya Khanto hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November [he] would either be in power or in jail".[34]

On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house ofGolam Azam.[35]

July–November[edit]

July[edit]

Location of West Pakistani (markedgreen) and rebel Bangladeshi (markedred) military units in March 1971.

The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone intoeleven sectors.The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids,ambushesandsabotagingWest Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges,culverts,fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army.[36] However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August.[37]After themonsoon,the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini.[38]The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.[39]

August[edit]

[relevant?]

After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US SenatorTed Kennedybelieved that Pakistan was committing a genocide.[40]Golam Azamcalled for Pakistan to attack India and toannexeAssamin retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini.[40]Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis.Oxfampredicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.[40]

September[edit]

Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971,[41]increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.[42]

October[edit]

In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensifiedguerrilla attacksinside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians,[43]though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.[44]

November[edit]

In November, Indian involvement increased, with the IndianartilleryandIndian Air forceproviding direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives.[45]Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.[46]

Air operations[edit]

TheBangladesh Air Force(BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command ofAir CommodoreA. K. Khandker.It initially operated from a jungle airstrip nearDimapurin Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips inLalmonirhat,Shalutikar,SylhetandComillain November and December. The BAF launched "Kilo Flights"under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971.Sortiesby Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.[47]

Naval operations[edit]

The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July.Operation Jackpotwas launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971.Bangladesh Navycommandos sank vessels of thePakistan NavyinMongla,Chittagong,ChandpurandNarayanganj.[48][49][50][51]The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation.[52]The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats withmine-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from thePort of Monglabut were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board.[53]The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and usedsea minesto preventsupply shipsfrom docking in East Pakistani ports.Frogmenwere deployed to damage and sabotage ships.[54]

Bangladesh-India Allied Forces[edit]

Pakistan's Lt. Gen.A. A. K. Niazisigning thePakistani Instrument of SurrenderinDhakaon 16 December 1971, in the presence of India'sLt. Gen. Aurora.Standing behind them are various officers from India's Army, Navy and Air Force.

The launch ofOperation Chengiz KhanbyWest PakistanonNorth Indiafinally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a jointcommand structurewas established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Threecorpsof the Indian Armed Forces were supported by threebrigadesof the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements.[55]The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. TheBattle of Sylhet,theBattle of Garibpur,theBattle of Boyra,theBattle of Hilliand theBattle of Kushtiawere major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, theMeghna Heli Bridgeairlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces fromBrahmanbariatoNarsingdiover Pakistani defences inAshuganj.The cities ofJessore,Mymensingh,Sylhet,Kushtia,NoakhaliandMoulvibazarquickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began themass murder of Bengali intellectualsand professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengaliintelligentsia.[citation needed]HistorianYasmin Saikiawrites that the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan.[56] The Mukti Bahini liberated most of theDhaka Districtby mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as thePort of Karachiwas subjected to anaval blockadeby the Indian Navy. Pakistani generalssurrenderedto the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.[57]

Organization[edit]

See also:List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War
Mukti Bahini propaganda posters, one referencing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's 7 March speech and calling all Bengali Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Hindus to unite as one nation.

The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" – or "regular forces" – who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces ofEast Pakistan,and the Gonnobahini – or "people's forces" – who were civilians. These names were given and defined by theGovernment of Bangladesh.The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".[58][10]

M. A. G. Osmani,aBengaliveteranof theBritish Rajforces inWorld War IIand the Pakistan army, established theBangladesh Armed Forceson 4 April 1971. TheProvisional Government of Bangladeshplaced all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as thedefence ministerwith the rank ofCommander-in-Chiefas afour star general.Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including theZ Force.Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as theNiyomito Bahini(Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as theGonobahini(People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-WesternAwami League,the pro-Chinese and socialistNational Awami Party,led byMaulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani,and the pro-SovietCommunist Party of East Pakistan.[36]

The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks;military intelligenceunits; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders includeddefectorofficers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, MajorKhaled Mosharraf,MajorK M Shafiullah,CaptainA. N. M. Nuruzzaman,MajorChitta Ranjan Dutta,Wing CommanderM Khademul Bashar,MajorNazmul Huq,MajorQuazi Nuruzzaman,MajorAbu Osman Chowdhury,MajorAbul Manzoor,MajorM. A. Jalil,MajorAbu Taherand Squadron LeaderM. Hamidullah Khan.[59]TheMujib Bahiniwas led by Awami League youth leadersSerajul Alam Khan,Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni,Tofael AhmedandAbdur Razzak.An Australian war veteran,William A. S. Ouderland,organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded theBir Protikfor his actions by the government of Bangladesh.[60]Left-wing politiciansKader Siddique,Hemayet UddinandMoni Singhcreated several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in theTangail District.[61]Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies.[62]

TheIndependent Bangladesh Radio Stationwas one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Mukti Bahini operatedfield hospitals,wireless stations, training camps and prisons.[citation needed]

Equipment[edit]

Italianhowitzersused by theMujib Battery;[63]now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum.

The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italianhowitzers,Alouette IIIhelicopters,"Dakota" DC-3aircraft and"Otter" DHC-3fighter planes.[64]The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply throughCalcutta Port.[65]The Mukti Bahini usedSten Guns,Lee–Enfieldrifles and Indian-madehand grenades.[35]Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below:

International reactions[edit]

Thegenocide by Pakistani forcescaused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan.[66]In the United States,DemocraticsenatorTed Kennedyled a chorus of strong domestic criticism against theNixon administrationfor ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan.[67][68]

The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students.[65]French Minister of Cultural AffairsAndré Malrauxvowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces.[69]

TheSoviet Unionthrew its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution.[65]Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing afriendship treatywith Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty.[70]For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.[71][72]

India[edit]

Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army,[11]where the regions ofWest Bengal,Tripura and theBarak Valleyshared strongethnic,linguisticandculturallinks with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public.[73]India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wingNaxalites.It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India.[73]

Indian Prime Minister,Indira Gandhi,authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971.[74][31]The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile inCalcutta.TheIndian Armed Forcesprovided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states ofBihar,Arunachal Pradesh,Assam,Nagaland,Mizoram,Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.[71][72]Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will.[75]

Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of theMujib Bahiniby India which was composed ofSheikh Mujib-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh.[2]

On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.[76]

Women[edit]

Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during theBangladesh Liberation War.The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare.Taramon Bibiis one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. CaptainSitara Begumis noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters.[77]Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.[78]

Post-war[edit]

Aparajeyo Bangla (Invincible Bengal) was finished on 16 December 1978 by Syed Abdullah Khalid at University of Dhaka Campus, is a Monument to Mukti Bahini.[79]

The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, theBangladesh Riflesand theBangladesh Police.Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities.[80]The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas.Bangladesh Liberation War ministryis responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members.[81]The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.[82]

Indemnity[edit]

On 28 February 1973 thegovernment of Bangladeshenacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.[82]

Criticism[edit]

Human rights violations[edit]

The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians onWest PakistanisandBiharis.[83][84]

On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to havemassacred15000Biharisin the town ofSantaharin the district ofNaogaon.[85][86]They are also accused of rapingBihariwomen during the war.[83]

Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, backed by Indian government, from East Pakistan, killed non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War.[87][circular reference]

Legacy[edit]

Cultural[edit]

TheNational Martyrs' Memorialin Bangladesh
See also:Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War

The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerousartwork,literature, films and television productions.

Honours[edit]

Bir Sreshtho(The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They wereRuhul Amin,Mohiuddin Jahangir,Mostafa Kamal,Hamidur Rahman,Munshi Abdur Rouf,Nur Mohammad SheikhandMatiur Rahman.[88]

The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance areBir Uttom,Bir BikromandBir Protik.[89]

In the Section 2(11) of theBangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare TrustAct, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018)everyone participated in the liberation war is defined asBir Muktijoddha(Bengali:বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা).[90]The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter.[91]To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, theMinistry of Liberation War Affairsof the11th National Parliamentissued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will beHeroic Freedom Fighter.[92]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Bengali:মুক্তিবাহিনী

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

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