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Multicultural London English

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Multicultural London English
Urban British English
Native toEngland
RegionMulticulturalparts ofLondon;variants in other cities
EthnicityVarious (seeEthnic groups in London)
Early forms
Latin(English alphabet)
SourcesVarious, includingCaribbean English(in particularJamaican Patois),African dialects of English,Punjabi,Urdu,Bengali,Hindi,Arabic,SomaliandCockney
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
GlottologNone
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Multicultural London English(abbreviatedMLE) is asociolectofEnglishthat emerged in the late 20th century. It is spoken mainly by young,working-classpeople inmulticulturalparts ofLondon.[1][2][3]

Speakers of MLE come from a wide variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds, and live in diverse neighbourhoods. As a result, it can be regarded as amultiethnolect.[4]One study was unable "to isolatedistinct (discrete)ethnic styles "in their data on phonetics and quotatives inHackneyand commented that the "differences between ethnicities, where they exist, are quantitative in nature".[5]Linguistshave suggested that diversity of friendship groups is a contributing factor to the development of MLE; the more ethnically diverse an adolescent's friendship networks are, the more likely it is that they will speak MLE.[5]

Variants of MLE have emerged in diverse neighbourhoods of other cities, such asBirminghamandManchester,which fuse elements of MLE with local influences.[6]This has led to some linguists referring to an overarching variety of English known as Multicultural British English (MBE), also known as Multicultural Urban British English (MUBE) or Urban British English (abbreviated UBE), which emerged from and is heavily influenced by MLE.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]

MLE is rooted mostly in the widespread migration from theCaribbeanto the UK followingWorld War II,and to a lesser extent the migration from other areas such asSouth AsiaandWest Africa.[9]DistinctiveBlack Britishslang did not become widely visible until the 1970s. The popularity ofJamaican musicin the UK, such asreggaeandska,led to the emergence of slang rooted inJamaican patoisbeing used in the UK, setting the foundation for what would later become known as MLE.[8]Research conducted in the early 1980s concluded that adolescents ofAfro-Caribbeandescent were 'bidialectal', switching between Jamaican creole and London English; while white working class adolescents would occasionally use creole-inspired slang, they retained their accents.[7]In 1985,Smiley Culture,a British musician of Jamaican and Guyanese heritage, released "Cockney Translation", one of the first examples of British 'white slang' and British 'black slang' appearing side-by-side on a record (however, still distinct from each other).[10][11]While Smiley Culture was commenting on how the two forms of slang were very distinct from each other and lived side-by-side, more natural fusions would become common in later years. Some hip-hop artists from the late 80s and early 90s, such asLondon Posse,regularly infused both cockney and patois influenced slang in their music, showcasing how elements of both were becoming very much entwined and influencing each other, reflecting how younger, working-class Londoners were speaking.[12][11]Such influences were not restricted to persons of a specific racial background. In 1987,Dick Hebdige,a British sociologist, commented that "In some parts of Britain, West Indian patois has become the public language of inner-city youths, irrespective of their racial origin".[13][10]

By the late 1990s, London was becoming increasingly multilingual, and residential segregation was less common. Young people from various ethnic backgrounds intermixed and, inHackneyat least, Cockney was no longer the majority-spoken local dialect, resulting in children of various ethnic backgrounds adopting MLE.[7]LinguistTony Thornenoted that white working-class school kids were using "recreolised lexis". In the following decade, it would become ever more common, showcased prominently in music such asgrimeand British hip hop, and in films like Kidulthood.[8][14][11]

As the media became more aware of MLE in the 2000s, a variety of names emerged to describe it such as "Nang slang","Blinglish","Tikkiny",or"Blockney".[15][16][17][18]MLE is sometimes referred to as "Jafaican"(or"Jafaikan"), conveying the idea of" fake Jamaican ", because of popular belief that it stems solely from immigrants ofJamaicanand Caribbean descent.[4][19]However, research suggests that the roots of MLE are more varied: twoEconomic and Social Research Councilfunded research projects[20][21]found that MLE has most likely developed as a result oflanguage contactand group second language acquisition.[22]Specifically, it can contain elements from "learners' varietiesof English, Englishes from the Indian subcontinent and Africa, Caribbeancreolesand Englishes along with their indigenised London versions, local London and south-eastern vernacular varieties of English, local and international youth slang, as well as more levelled and standard-like varieties from various sources. "[23][24]

According to research conducted atLancaster UniversityandQueen Mary University of Londonin 2010, "In much of the East End of London the Cockney dialect... will have disappeared within another generation.... it will be gone [from the East End] within 30 years.... It has been 'transplanted' to... [Essex and Hertfordshire New] towns."[25][26]

With the worldwide growth ofgrimeandUK drillfrom the mid-2010s onwards, elements of MLE began to spread internationally along with the genres. Some Australian, Canadian, Dutch, and Irish musicians, such asOnefour,Drake,and 73 De Pijp, for example, have been noted for using slang derivatives of MLE.[27][28]Kate Burridge and Howard Manns, both Australian linguists, also noted that some MLE phrases (such as 'peng', meaning attractive or good) were being used generally by Australian youth.[29]Similar influences have also been noted in Finnish teenagers.[30]

It has been noted that in other countries, such as Canada,Multicultural Toronto Englishhas developed very strong similarities derived from MLE, which arose independently but with similar cultural influences and origin roots.[31][32][33]A Canadian linguist, Derek Denis, has been noting MTE for some of the MLE phrases (such as "mans", meaning a group of guys, "wasteman", meaning someone's a waste of space or a loser, and "yute", a slang term of Jamaican origin for "youth", used to refer to a young adult or child), which were commonly used by Torontonian youths.[34][35]

Grammar

[edit]
  • Was/werevariation: The past tense of the verb "to be" isregularised.Regularisation ofwas/wereis something that is found across the English speaking world. Many non-standard systems in Britain (and parts of the US Mid-Atlantic coast) usewasvariably for positive conjugations, andweren'tfor negative conjugations (System 1 below) to make the distinction between positive and negative contexts clearer (cf.will/won't and are/ain't).[36]Most non-Standard varieties in the English speaking world have a system where both positive and negative contexts have levelled towas(System 2 below).[37]Speakers of MLE use any of the three systems, with choice correlating with ethnicity and gender.[37]Cheshire and Fox (2008) found the use of non-standardwasto be most common among Black Caribbean speakers, and least common among those of Bangladeshi descent.[37]Bangladeshis were also found to use non-standardweren'tthe least, but this variable was used more by white British speakers than anyone else.[37]
Standard English Non-standard system 1 Non-standard system 2
I was, I wasn't I was, I weren't I was, I wasn't
You were, you weren't You was, you weren't You was, you wasn't
He/she/it was, he/she/it wasn't He/she/it was, he/she/it weren't He/she/it was, he/she/it wasn't
We were, we weren't We was, we weren't We was, we wasn't
  • An innovative feature is the ability to form questions in "Why... for?"[38]compared to Standard English "Why...?" or "What... for?".
  • The "traditional Southern"[38]England phrasal preposition "off of" has "robust use",[38]especially with "Anglo females".[38]
  • Manas a pronoun: 'Man' is widely used as a first person singular pronoun, which may be rendered "man's" when combined with certain verbs such as "to be" and "to have": "man got arrested", "man's getting emotional".[39]"Man" can also be used to refer to the second-person or third-person singular: "Where's man going?" (Where are you/is he going?)

Discourse-pragmatic markers

[edit]
  • Innit/init,arguably a reduction of 'isn't it', has a third discourse function in MLE, in addition to the widespread usage as atag-questionor a follow-up as in [1] and [2] below. In MLE,innitcan also mark information structure overtly, to mark a topic or to foreground new information, as in the italicised example in [3].[4]
[1]they was getting jealous thoughinnit
[2]Hadiya: it weren't like it was an accident
Bisa:innit
[3]yeah I know. I'm a lot smaller than all of them man and who were like "whoa". I mean the sisterinnitshe's about five times bigger than you innit Mark?
  • This isas a quotative, to introduce direct reported speech at key points in dramatic narrative.[40]
this ismy mum's boyfriend "put that in your pocket now".

Phonology

[edit]
This section containsphonetic transcriptionsin theInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA).For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.For the distinction between[ ],/ /and ⟨⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

While older speakers in London today display a vowel and consonant system that matches previously dominant accents such asCockney,young speakers often display different qualities. The qualities are on the whole not thelevelledones noted in recent studies (such as Williams & Kerswill 1999 and Przedlacka 2002) of teenage speakers inSouth East Englandoutside London:Milton Keynes,Reading,Luton,Essex,SloughandAshford.From principles of levelling, it would be expected that younger speakers would show precisely the levelled qualities, with further developments reflecting the innovatory status of London as well as the passage of time. However, evidence, such as Cheshireet al.(2011) and Cheshireet al.(2013), contradicts that expectation.

Vowels

[edit]
  • Frontingof/ʊ/,the vowel in FOOT: "more retracted in the outer-city borough of Havering than in Hackney"[22]
  • Lack of/oʊ/-fronting: fronting of the offset of/oʊ/"absent in most inner-London speakers" of both sexes and all ethnicities but "present inouter-citygirls ".[5]
  • /aɪ/-lowering across region: it is seen as a reversal of thediphthongshift. However, the added fronting is greater in London than in the southeastern periphery, resulting in variants such as[aɪ]and monophthongised[aː].Fronting and monophthongisation of/aɪ/are correlated with ethnicity and strongest amongBlack, Asian, and minority ethnic(BAME) speakers. It seems to be a geographically directional anddiachronicallygradual process. The change (from approximately[ɔɪ]) involves lowering of the onset, and as such, it is a reversal of the diphthong shift. It can be interpreted as a London innovation with diffusion to the periphery.
  • Raised onset of the vowel in words like FACE, which results in variants such as[eɪ].Like/aɪ/,monophthongisation of/eɪ/to[eː]is strongest among BAME. It is also seen as a reversal of the diphthong shift.[22][41]
  • /aʊ/realised as[aː]and not "levelled"[aʊ]:In inner-city London,[aː]is the norm for/aʊ/.Additionally,[ɑʊ]is used by some BAME, especially girls, in the inner city.
  • Advancedfrontingof/uː/results in realisations such as[ʏː][22]
  • Backing of/æ/can result in variants such as[a̠].[22]
  • Backing of/ʌ/results in variants such as[ɑ]or[ʌ],rather than[ɐ].[22]

Consonants

[edit]
  • Reversal ofH-dropping:word-initial/h/was commonly dropped in traditional Cockney in words likehairandhand.That is now much less common, with some MLE speakers not dropping/h/at all.[22]
  • Backing of/k/to[q]:/k/is pronounced further back in the vocal tract and is realised as[q]when it occurs before non-high back vowels, such as in words likecousinandcome.[22][41]
  • Th-fronting:/θ/is fronted to[f]in words such asthreeandthrough(which becomefreeandfrough), and/ð/is fronted to[v]in words such asbrotherandanother,which becomebruverandanuver.[41][5]
  • Th-stopping:Syllable-initialvoiceless"th" can be stopped (i.e., pronounced as "t" ), sothingbecomesting.[5]Syllable-initial voiced "th" (as inthis,that,though,etc) is stopped (i.e., pronounced "d" ), so the aforementioned words becomedis,dat/dahanddoerespectively.
  • Among speakers of Jamaican descent, Londont-glottalizationmay additionally apply to[t]resulting from stopped/θ/,for exampleboth of them[boʊʔədɛm].Hypercorrectionslike[fʊθ]forfootmay also be heard among Jamaicans.[42]
  • According toGeoff Lindsey,one of the most striking features of MLE is the advanced articulation of the sibilants/s,z/as post-dental[s̪,z̪].[43]
  • Like most accents of England, Multicultural London English isnon-rhotic.[44]

Vocabulary

[edit]
For a list of words relating to Multicultural London English, see theMulticultural London Englishcategory of wordsinWiktionary,the free dictionary.

Examples of vocabulary common in Multicultural London English include:

Adjectives

[edit]
  • "Bait" (obvious, or well known)[45]
  • "Balling" (rich)[45]
  • "Bare" (very/a lot/many)[45]
  • "Booky/Bookey/Bookie/Buki" (suspicious, strange)[46]
  • "Buff" (strong/attractive) (can be used in conjunction with "ting" meaning an attractive situation, or more commonly, an attractive woman)[45]
  • "Butters" (ugly, or disgusting)[45]
  • "Dead/bad" (boring, empty)[45]
  • "Deep" (very unfortunate/serious) (used to describe a situation)[45][citation needed]
  • "Dutty" (dirty, bad, ugly)[47]
  • "Gassed" (overwhelmed, happy, excited, full of oneself)[48][49]
  • "Greezy" (bad)[46]
  • "Gully" (rough, cool)[50]
  • "Hench" (physically fit, strong)[51]
  • "Leng" (attractive, gun, something good)[52][50]
  • "Long" (laborious, tedious)[45]
  • "Moist" (soft / uncool, more extreme form of ‘wet’)[53]
  • "Peak"/piːk/(a situation or thing that is awful, undesirable, disappointing, or embarrassing. Originally it held a positive connotation)[54]
  • "Peng" (attractive person, or something good)[51]
  • "Piff" (attractive person, something good)[55]
  • "Safe" (greetings, good)[45][53]
  • "Shook" (scared)[56]
  • "Wavey" (high or drunk)[46]
  • "Wet" (uncool, boring, soft)[53]

Interjections

[edit]
  • "Dun know" ( "of course" or "you already know", also an expression of approval. An abbreviated form of "You done know" as in "You done know how it goes".)[citation needed]
  • "Alie/Ahlie!" ( "Am I lying?", used as an expression of agreement, or as a question marker as in "Ahlie you sit there?" )[citation needed]
  • "Oh, my days!"/oʊmɑːdeɪz/(a generalised exclamation, previously common in the 1940s and 1950s)[8]
  • "Safe"/seɪf/(expression of approval, greeting, thanks, agreement, and also used as aparting phrase)[45][51][citation needed]
  • "Rah!"/rɑː/(exclamation, used to express bad, excitement, shocking, unbelievable, wow)[50]
  • "Big man ting" ( "seriously", used after making a statement)[citation needed]
  • "On a G ting" (almost the same as the above but less common and, unlike the above, used almost exclusively before making a statement)
  • "Swear down!" ( "swear it", "really?" )[50]

Pronouns

[edit]
  • "Man" (first or second-person singular)
  • "You" (second-person singular)
  • "My man" (third-person singular, masculine)
  • "My guy" (close friend or acquaintance)
  • "My G" (short for "my guy" )[citation needed]
  • "Them man" (they)
  • "These man" (they)
  • "Us man" (we)
  • "You man" (you, plural)
  • "You(s) lot" (you, plural)

Nouns

[edit]
  • "Akh" (a term of endearment, derived from theArabicword for brother)[29]
  • "Blem" (a cigarette)[50]
  • "Blud" (an endearing term for a close friend; from "blood" implying family)[51]
  • "Boss(man)" (used to refer to an individual, often a service worker in a convenience store or chicken shop)[57][58]
  • "Bruv" (an endearing term used for a close friend or brother)[51]
  • "Boy"[bwɔːɛ](a term of belittlement, to belittle someone)[59]
  • "Creps" (shoes, more typically trainers or sneakers)[45]
  • "Ends" (neighbourhood)[45]
  • "Dinger" (car, often in a criminal context, referring to a stolen vehicle)[60]
  • "Fam" (short for "family", can also refer to "friend" )[45]
  • "Feds" (police)[61]
  • "Gally" (girl(s))[29]
  • "Garms" (clothes, derived from garments)[45]
  • "Gyal"[gjæl](girl)[51]
  • "Gyaldem"[gjældɛm](group of girls)[51]
  • "Mandem" (group of men, male friends)[45]
  • "Paigon" (a modified spelling ofEnglishword "pagan",to refer to a fake friend/enemy)[52]
  • "Rambo" (knife)[52]
  • "Riddim" (instrumental/beat of a song)[62]
  • "Roadman" (a youth member that spends a lot of time on the streets and may sell and use drugs, or cause trouble)[63]
  • "Shank" (to stab, knife)[64][65]
  • "Side ting" (sexual partner other than a girlfriend/wife, as in the standard British phrase "a bit on the side" )[citation needed]
  • "Skeng" (gun, knife)[52]
  • "Sket" (a promiscuous woman)[45]
  • "Ting" (a thing or a situation, also an attractive woman)[50][citation needed]
  • "Wasteman" (a worthless/useless person)[45]
  • "Upsuh" (out of town)[citation needed]
  • "Wap" (gun)[52]
  • "Wifey" (girlfriend or wife)[citation needed]
  • "Yard" (house or dwelling)[45]
  • "Wagwan" (What's going on)

Verbs

[edit]
  • "Air" (to ignore somebody)[50]
  • "Aks"[ɑːks](ask, an example ofmetathesisthat also occurs inWest Country dialects)[citation needed]
  • "Allow (it/that)" (to urge someone else to exercise self-restraint)[50]
  • "Beef" (argument, fight)[56]
  • "Beg" (please, a wannabe/try-hard)[50]
  • "Bun" (to smoke, to kill someone)[50]
  • "Buss" (to give/to send, to bust, or to ejaculate)[citation needed]
  • "Chat breeze" (talk rubbish/lie)[50]
  • "Cheff" (stab, from a chef cutting with a knife)[citation needed]
  • "Ching" (stab)[52]
  • "Chirpse" (to flirt with somebody)[50]
  • "Clap" (to hit/shoot/attack)[citation needed]
  • "Cotch" (to hang out)[45]
  • "Crease" (to laugh hysterically)[50]
  • "Dash" (to throw)[50]
  • "Duss"[dʌs](to make a run for it)[66]
  • "Gas" (to lie)[50]
  • "Jack" (to steal something)[50]
  • "Kweff" (to stab)[citation needed]
  • "Link (up)" (to meet up, give someone something, pre-relationship status)[50]
  • "Lips" (to kiss, specifically on the mouth)[citation needed]
  • "Merk" (to beat someone, finish someone off)[50]
  • "Par (off)" (to verbally abuse someone, or to make a mockery of someone)[citation needed]
  • "Pattern" (to fix something/yourself up/get something/get something done)[citation needed]
  • "Pree" (to stare at something or someone)[citation needed]
  • "Set (me some/that)" (to ask for an item)[citation needed]
  • "Shoobz" (to party)[50]
  • "Touch yard" (to have reached home)[citation needed]
  • "Twos" (to share something with somebody)[50]
[edit]

See also

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^"UrBEn-ID Urban British English project".Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2021.Retrieved23 May2016.
  2. ^"Argot bargy".The Economist.2 November 2013.ISSN0013-0613.Archivedfrom the original on 15 April 2021.Retrieved15 April2021.
  3. ^"How Is Immigration Changing Language In the UK?".www.vice.com.24 February 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2021.Retrieved16 April2021.
  4. ^abcCheshire, Jenny; Nortier, Jacomine; Adger, David (2015)."Emerging Multiethnolects in Europe"(PDF).Queen Mary Occasional Papers in Linguistics:4.Archived(PDF)from the original on 15 August 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
  5. ^abcdeCheshire, Jenny; Fox, Sue; Kerswill, Paul; Torgersen, Eivind (2008).Ethnicity, friendship network and social practices as the motor of dialect change: Linguistic innovation in London(PDF).Vol. 22. pp. 1–23.doi:10.1515/9783484605299.1.ISBN9783484605299.S2CID10973301.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 March 2021.Retrieved24 March2020.{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help)
  6. ^ab"Multicultural British English – Rob Drummond".Archivedfrom the original on 8 May 2021.Retrieved6 June2022.
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  9. ^"What is MLE? – Language and Linguistic Science, The University of York".www.york.ac.uk.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2021.Retrieved5 January2021.
  10. ^abGreen, Jonathon (5 October 2017).The Stories of Slang: Language at its most human.Little, Brown Book Group.ISBN978-1-4721-3967-2.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2021.Retrieved15 February2021.
  11. ^abcNott, Christ."The post-racial, non-rhotic, inner city, Th-fronting, cross cultural, dipthong shifting, multi-ethnic, L-vocalisation, K-backing fusion of language"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 March 2021.Retrieved5 January2021.
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  23. ^Kerswill 2013,p. 5.
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  25. ^University of Lancaster press release 2010.
  26. ^BBC News 2010.
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  31. ^"Toronto slang on the rise thanks to city's growing pop culture relevance".CBC News.13 October 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2022.Retrieved8 March2022.
  32. ^Farooqui, Salmaan (13 October 2019)."Toronto slang on the rise thanks to city's growing pop culture relevance".CP24.Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2022.Retrieved22 April2022.
  33. ^Wijekoon, Pamoda (17 July 2020)."The past, present, and future of Canadian English: What our accent tells us about being Canadian".The Pigeon.Archivedfrom the original on 5 May 2022.Retrieved14 August2022.
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  38. ^abcdKerswill 2007.
  39. ^Cheshire, Jenny (2013). "Grammaticalisation in social context: The emergence of a new English pronoun".Journal of Sociolinguistics.17(5): 608–633.doi:10.1111/josl.12053.
  40. ^Cheshire, Jenny; Hall, David; Adger, David (2017). "Multicultural London English and social and educational policies".Languages, Society & Policy.doi:10.17863/CAM.9804.
  41. ^abcCheshire, Jenny; Fox, Sue; Kerswill, Paul; Torgersen, Eivind (2013). "Language contact and language change in the multicultural metropolis".Revue Française de Linguistique Appliqueé.XVIII.
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  44. ^"Multicultural London English (MLE) – KTS".Retrieved31 July2023.
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References

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Further reading

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