Neo-Confucianism

This article is about a movement developed during the Song and Ming dynasties. For a movement that emerged in the 20th century, seeNew Confucianism.

Neo-Confucianism
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	Tống minh lý học
Simplified Chinese	Tống minh lý học
Literal meaning	"Song-Ming [dynasty] rational idealism"
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Sòng-Míng lǐxué Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄌㄧˇ ㄒㄩㄝˊ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Sonq-Ming liishyue Wade–Giles Sung4-Ming2li3-hsüeh2 IPA [sʊ̂ŋ mǐŋ lìɕɥě] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Sung-Mìhng léih-hohk Jyutping Sung3 Ming4 lei5 hok6 IPA [sʊŋ˧.mɪŋ˩ lej˩˧.hɔk̚˨] Southern Min Tâi-lô Sòng-Bîng lí-ha̍k
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese	Lý học
Chữ Hán	Lý học
Korean name
Hangul	성리학
Hanja	Tính lý học
Transcriptions Revised Romanization Seongnihak
Japanese name
Kanji	Tống minh lý học
Hiragana	そうみんりがく
Transcriptions Revised Hepburn Sō Min rigaku Kunrei-shiki Sô Min rigaku

Neo-Confucianism(Chinese:Tống minh lý học;pinyin:Sòng-Míng lǐxué,often shortened tolǐxuéLý học, literally "School of Principle" ) is amoral,ethical,andmetaphysicalChinese philosophyinfluenced byConfucianism,which originated withHan Yu(768–824) andLi Ao(772–841) in theTang dynasty,and became prominent during theSongandMingdynasties under the formulations ofZhu Xi(1130–1200). After theMongol conquest of Chinain the thirteenth century, Chinese scholars and officials restored and preserved neo-Confucianism as a way to safeguard the cultural heritage of China.

Neo-Confucianism could have been an attempt to create a more rationalist and secular form of Confucianism by rejecting mystical elements ofTaoismandBuddhismthat had influenced Confucianism during and after the Han dynasty.Although the neo-Confucianists were critical of Taoism and Buddhism, the two did have an influence on the philosophy, and the neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts. However, unlike the Buddhists and Taoists, who sawmetaphysicsas a catalyst for spiritual development, religious enlightenment, and immortality, the neo-Confucianists used metaphysics as a guide for developing a rationalist ethical philosophy.Traditional Confucian beliefssuch as gender roleswere also included, leading to thedevaluing of women in Korea.

Origins

Further information:Religion in the Song dynasty § Neo-Confucianism

Bronze statue ofZhou DunyiinWhite Deer Grotto Academy

Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholarsHan YuandLi Aoare seen as forebears of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.The Song dynasty philosopherZhou Dunyi(1017–1073) is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.Neo-Confucianism was both a revival of classical Confucianism, updated to align with the social values of the Song dynasty, and a reaction to the challenges of Buddhism and Taoism philosophy and religion which emerged during the Zhou and Han dynasties.Although the neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Taoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.

One of the most important exponents of neo-Confucianism wasZhu Xi(1130–1200), his teachings were so influential that they were integrated into civil-service examination from approximately 1314 until 1905.He was a rather prolific writer, maintaining and defending his Confucian beliefs of social harmony and proper personal conduct. One of his most remembered was the bookFamily Rituals,where he provided detailed advice on how to conduct weddings, funerals, family ceremonies, and the veneration of ancestors. Buddhist thought soon attracted him, and he began to argue in Confucian style for the Buddhist observance of high moral standards. He also believed that it was important to practical affairs that one should engage in both academic and philosophical pursuits, although his writings are concentrated more on issues of theoretical (as opposed to practical) significance. It is reputed that he wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist and included some heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism. After theXining era(1068–1077),Wang Yangming(1472–1529) is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker. Wang's interpretation of Confucianism denied the rationalist dualism of Zhu's orthodox philosophy.

There were many competing views within the neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist andTaoist(Daoist) thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in theI Ching(Book of Changes) as well as otheryin yangtheories associated with theTaijisymbol (Taijitu). A well known neo-Confucian motif ispaintingsofConfucius,Buddha,andLao Tzuall drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan "The three teachings are one!"

While neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many neo-Confucianists strongly opposed Buddhism and Taoism. Indeed, they rejected the Buddhist and Taoist religions. One ofHan Yu's most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhistrelics.Nonetheless, neo-Confucian writings adapted Buddhist thoughts and beliefs to the Confucian interest. InChina,neo-Confucianism was an officially recognized creed from its development during the Song dynasty until the early twentieth century, and lands in the sphere of Song China (Vietnam,Korea,andJapan) were all deeply influenced by neo-Confucianism for more than half a millennium.

Philosophy

Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy using metaphysical ideas, some borrowed from Taoism, as its framework. The philosophy can be characterized as humanistic and rationalistic, with the belief that the universe could be understood through human reason, and that it was up to humanity to create a harmonious relationship between the universe and the individual.

The rationalism of neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominantChan Buddhism.Unlike the Buddhists, the neo-Confucians believed that reality existed, and could be understood by humankind, even if the interpretations of reality were slightly different depending on the school of neo-Confucianism.

But the spirit of Neo-Confucian rationalism is diametrically opposed to that of Buddhist mysticism. Whereas Buddhism insisted on the unreality of things, Neo-Confucianism stressed their reality. Buddhism and Taoism asserted that existence came out of, and returned to, non-existence; Neo-Confucianism regarded reality as a gradual realization of the Great Ultimate... Buddhists, and to some degree, Taoists as well, relied on meditation and insight to achieve supreme reason; the Neo-Confucianists chose to follow Reason.

The importance ofliin Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its Chinese name, literally "The study ofLi".

In the view of Neo-Confucians, the true form of Confucianism had been lost after Mencius as "later" Confucians were more concerned with the vehicles of knowledge such as Classics or literary writing rather than the "values that all should share," They claimed that "later" Confucians focused on correct governance (found in the canonical texts) to the exclusion of "correct learning," the necessary basis for moral order. Their ideal of moral order, which could be inculcated by scholars outside of government, stood in contrast with previous ideas of moral instruction by ruling authorities.Neo-Confucians could be distinguished by their stronger concern with personal ethics and morals. Politically, Neo-Confucians also opposed centralization in the imperial court and instead argued for more local autonomy and the creation of lateral, community-centred institutions for social improvement. These voluntary local literati organizations focused on local education and local relief instead of aligning with the requirements of government service or government officials. The growing numbers of literati who did not serve in government but saw themselves as the equals of officials, capable of bottom-up collective action, constrained the authority of the local officials.

Schools

Neo-Confucianism was a heterogeneous philosophical tradition, and is generally categorized into two different schools.

Two-school model vs. three-school model

In medieval China, the mainstream of neo-Confucian thought, dubbed the "Tao school", had long categorized a thinker namedLu Jiuyuanamong the unorthodox, non-Confucian writers. However, in the 15th century, the esteemed philosopherWang Yangmingtook sides with Lu and critiqued some of the foundations of the Tao school, albeit not rejecting the school entirely.Objections arose to Yangming's philosophy within his lifetime, and shortly after his death, Chen Jian (1497–1567) grouped Wang together with Lu as unorthodox writers, dividing neo-Confucianism into two schools.As a result, neo-Confucianism today is generally categorized into two different schools of thought. The school that remained dominant throughout the medieval and early modern periods is called theCheng–Zhu schoolfor the esteem it places inCheng Yi,Cheng Hao,andZhu Xi.The less dominant, opposing school was theLu–Wang school,based on its esteem for Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming.

In contrast to this two-branch model, theNew ConfucianMou Zongsanargues that there existed a third branch of learning, theHu-Liu school,based on the teachings ofHu Hong(Hu Wufeng, 1106–1161) andLiu Zongzhou(Liu Jishan, 1578–1645). The significance of this third branch, according to Mou, was that they represented the direct lineage of the pioneers of neo-Confucianism, Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai and Cheng Hao. Moreover, this thirdHu-Liu schooland the secondLu–Wang school,combined, form the true mainstream of neo-Confucianism instead of the Cheng–Zhu school. The mainstream represented a return to the teachings ofConfucius,Mengzi,theDoctrine of the Meanand the Commentaries of theBook of Changes.The Cheng–Zhu school was therefore only a minority branch based on theGreat Learningand mistakenly emphasized intellectual studies over the study of sagehood.

Cheng–Zhu school

Main article:Cheng–Zhu school

Zhu Xi's formulation of the neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that theTao(Chinese:Đạo;pinyin:dào;lit.'way') ofTian(Chinese:Thiên;pinyin:tiān;lit.'heaven') is expressed in principle orli(Chinese:Lý;pinyin:lǐ), but that it is sheathed in matter orqi(Chinese:Khí;pinyin:qì). In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and function (Chinese:Sự;pinyin:shì). In the neo-Confucian formulation,liin itself is pure and almost-perfect, but with the addition ofqi,base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the neo-Confucians argued (followingMencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one'sli.However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea ofkarma.

Different neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed ingewu(Chinese:Cách vật;pinyin:géwù), the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea thatlilies within the world.

Lu–Wang school

Main article:Lu–Wang school

Wang Yangming(Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that ifliis in all things, andliis in one's heart-mind, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so wasjingzuo(Chinese:Tĩnh tọa;pinyin:jìngzuò;lit.'quiet sitting'), a practice that strongly resemblesChan (Zen)meditation,orzuochan(Japanese:Tọa thiền;Chinese:Tọa thiền;pinyin:zuòchán;lit.'seated meditation'). Wang Yangming developed the idea ofinnate knowing,arguing that every person knows from birth the difference betweengoodandevil.Such knowledge isintuitiveand notrational.These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers likeMotoori Norinaga,who argued that because of theShintodeities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. Wang Yangming's school of thought (Ōyōmei-gakuin Japanese) also provided, in part, an ideological basis for some samurai who sought to pursue action based on intuition rather than scholasticism. As such, it also provided an intellectual foundation for the radical political actions of low ranking samurai in the decades prior to theMeiji Restoration(1868), in which theTokugawa shogunate(1600–1868) was overthrown.

In Korea

Further information:Korean Confucianism

Further information:Political factions during the Joseon dynasty

Portrait of Jo Gwang-jo

InJoseonKorea, neo-Confucianism was established as the state ideology. TheYuanoccupation of the Korean Peninsula introducedZhu Xi's school of neo-Confucianism to Korea.Neo-Confucianism was introduced to Korea byAn Hyangduring theGoryeo dynasty.At the time that he introduced neo-Confucianism, the Goryeo dynasty was in the last century of its existence and influenced by the MongolYuan dynasty.

Many Korean scholars visited China during the Yuan era and An was among them. In 1286, he read a book ofZhu XiinYanjingand was so moved by it that he transcribed the book in its entirety and came back to Korea with it. It greatly inspired Korean intellectuals at the time and many, predominantly from the middle class and disillusioned with the excesses of organized religion (namely Buddhism) and the old nobility, embraced neo-Confucianism. The newly rising neo-Confucian intellectuals were leading groups aimed at the overthrow of the old (and increasingly foreign-influenced) Goryeo dynasty.

After the fall of Goryeo and the establishment of the Joseon dynasty byYi Song-gyein 1392, neo-Confucianism was installed as the state ideology. Buddhism, and organized religion in general, was considered poisonous to the neo-Confucian order. Buddhism was accordingly restricted and occasionally persecuted by Joseon. As neo-Confucianism encouraged education, a number of neo-Confucian schools (서원seowonand 향교hyanggyo) were founded throughout the country, producing many scholars includingJo Gwang-jo(조광조, triệu quang tổ; 1482–1520),Yi Hwang(이황, lý hoảng; pen name Toegye 퇴계, thối khê; 1501–1570) andYi I(이이, lý nhị; 1536–1584).

In the early 16th century, Jo attempted to transform Joseon into an ideal neo-Confucian society with a series of radical reforms until he was executed in 1520. Despite this, neo-Confucianism soon assumed an even greater role in the Joseon dynasty. Soon neo-Confucian scholars, no longer content to only read and remember the Chinese original precepts, began to develop new neo-Confucian theories.Yi HwangandYi Iwere the most prominent of these new theorists.

Yi Hwang's most prominent disciples were Kim Seong-il ( kim thành nhất, 1538–1593),Yu Seong-ryong( liễu thành long 1542–1607) andJeong Gu(한강 정구, hàn cương trịnh cầu, 1543–1620), known as the "three heroes". They were followed by a second generation of scholars who includedJang Hyungwang( trương hiển quang, 1554–1637) andJang Heung-Hyo( kính đường trương hưng hiếu, 1564–1633), and by a third generation (includingHeo Mok,Yun Hyu,Yun Seon-doandSong Si-yeol) who brought the school into the 18th century

But neo-Confucianism became so dogmatic in a relatively rapid time that it prevented much needed socioeconomic development and change, and led to internal divisions and criticism of many new theories regardless of their popular appeal. For instance,Wang Yangming's theories, which were popular in the ChineseMing dynasty,were considered heresy and severely condemned by Korean neo-Confucianists. Furthermore, any annotations on Confucian canon different from Zhu Xi were excluded. Under Joseon, the newly emerging ruling class calledSarim(사림, sĩ lâm ) also split into political factions according to their diversity of neo-Confucian views on politics. There were two large factions and many subfactions.

During theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598),many Korean neo-Confucian books and scholars were taken to Japan and influenced Japanese scholars such asFujiwara Seikaand affected the development of Japanese neo-Confucianism.

In Japan

Main article:Edo Neo-Confucianism

Further information:Kansei Edict,Fujiwara Seika,Hayashi Razan,andToju Nakae

In Vietnam

Further information:Văn Miếu,Quốc Tử Giám,Lê Thánh Tông,andMinh Mạng

Portrait of Chu Văn An (1292–1370), prominently Vietnamese Confucianist teacher in 14th century.

In 1070, emperorLý Thánh Tôngopened first Confucius university in Hanoi namedVăn Miếu.The Lý, Trần court expanded the Confucianism influences in Vietnamese Mandarin through year examinations, continued the model of Tang dynasty until being annexed by the Ming invaders in 1407. In 1460, emperorLê Thánh TôngofLê dynastyadopted Neo-Confucianism as Đại Việt's basic values.

Bureaucratic examinations

Neo-Confucianism became the interpretation of Confucianism whose mastery was necessary to pass thebureaucratic examinationsby theMing,and continued in this way through the Qing dynasty until the end of the Imperial examination system in 1905. However, many scholars such asBenjamin Elmanhave questioned the degree to which their role as theorthodoxinterpretation instate examinationsreflects the degree to which both thebureaucratsandChinese gentryactually believed those interpretations, and point out that there were very active schools such asHan learningwhich offered competing interpretations of Confucianism.

The competing school of Confucianism was called theEvidential SchoolorHan Learningand argued that neo-Confucianism had caused the teachings of Confucianism to be hopelessly contaminated with Buddhist thinking. This school also criticized neo-Confucianism for being overly concerned with empty philosophical speculation that was unconnected with reality.

Confucian canon

The Confucian canon as it exists today was essentially compiled byZhu Xi.Zhu codified the canon ofFour Books(theGreat Learning,theDoctrine of the Mean,theAnalectsof Confucius, and theMencius) which in the subsequent Ming and Qing dynasties were made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examination.

New Confucianism

In the 1920s,New Confucianism,also known as modern neo-Confucianism, started developing and absorbed the Western learning to seek a way to modernize Chinese culture based on the traditional Confucianism. It centers on four topics: The modern transformation of Chinese culture; Humanistic spirit of Chinese culture; Religious connotation in Chinese culture; and Intuitive way of thinking, to go beyond the logic and to wipe out the concept of exclusion analysis. Adhering to the traditional Confucianism and the neo-confucianism, the modern neo-Confucianism contributes the nation's emerging from the predicament faced by the ancient Chinese traditional culture in the process of modernization; furthermore, it also promotes the world culture of industrial civilization rather than the traditional personal senses.

Prominent neo-Confucian scholars

China

• Cheng Yi(1033–1107) andCheng Hao(1032–1085)
• Lu Xiangshanalso known asLu Jiuyuan(1139–1193)
• Ouyang Xiu(1007–1072)
• Shao Yong(1011–1077)
• Su Shi,also known asSu Dongpo(1037–1101)
• Wang Yangmingalso known as Wang Shouren
• Wu Cheng(1249–1333)
• Ye Shi(1150–1223)
• Zhang Shi(1133–1180)
• Zhang Zai(1020-1077)
• Zhou Dunyi(1017–1073)
• Zhu Xi(1130–1200)
• Cheng Duanli(1271–1345)

Korea

See also:Korean Confucianism

• An Hyang(1243–1306)
• U T'ak(1263–1342)
• Yi Saek(1328–1396)
• Chŏng Mong-ju(1337–1392)
• Chŏng To-jŏn(1342–1398)
• Kil Chae(1353–1419)
• Ha Ryun
• Kwŏn Kŭn
• Jeong Inji(1396–1478)
• Kim Suk-ja
• Kim Chong-jik(1431–1492)
• Nam Hyo-on
• Kim Goil-pil
• Jo Gwang-jo(1482–1519)
• Seo Gyeongdeok
• Yi Eon-jeok
• Yi Hwang(Pen nameToegye) (1501–1570)
• Jo Sik(1501–1572)
• Ryu Seongryong
• Yi Hang
• Kim Inhu
• Ki Daeseung(1527–1572)
• Song Ik-pil(1534–1599)
• Seong Hon(1535–1598)
• Yi I(Pen nameYulgok) (1536–1584)
• Kim Jangsaeng(1548–1631)
• Song Si-yeol(1607–1689)
• Yi Gan(1677–1727)
• Yi Ik(1681–1763)
• Han Wonjin(1682–1751)
• Hong Daeyong(1731–1783)
• Park Jiwon(1737–1805)
• Park Jega(1750–1815)
• Jeong Yak-yong(1762–1836)

Japan

See also:Edo Neo-ConfucianismandKansei Edict

• Fujiwara Seika(1561–1619)
• Hayashi Razan(1583–1657)
• Nakae Tōju(1608–1648)
• Yamazaki Ansai(1619–1682)
• Kumazawa Banzan(1619–1691)
• Yamaga Sokō(1622–1685)
• Itō Jinsai(1627–1705)
• Kaibara Ekken(also known as Ekiken) (1630–1714)
• Arai Hakuseki(1657–1725)
• Ogyū Sorai(1666–1728)
• Nakai Chikuzan(1730–1804)
• Ōshio Heihachirō(1793–1837)

Vietnam

• Lê Văn Thịnh(1050–1096)
• Bùi Quốc Khái(1141–1234)
• Trần Thái Tông(1218–1277)
• Trương Hán Siêu(1274–1354)
• Chu Văn An(1292–1370)
• Lê Quát(1319–1386)
• Nguyễn Trãi(1380–1442)
• Ngô Sĩ Liên(1400–1498)
• Lê Thánh Tông(1442–1497)
• Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm(1491–1585)
• Lê Quý Đôn(1726–1784)
• Nguyễn Khuyến(1835–1909)
• Phan Đình Phùng(1847–1896)
• Minh Mạng(1791–1841)
• Tự Đức(1829–1883)

General sources

• Chan, Wing-tsit (1963),A Sourcebook of Chinese Philosophy,Princeton: Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-07137-4
• Chan, Wing-tsit, trans.Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming.New York:Columbia University Press,1963.
• Chan, Wing-tsit (1946).China.Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press.
• Craig, Edward (1998).Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-415-07310-3.
• Daehwan, Noh."The Eclectic Development of Neo-Confucianism and Statecraft from the 18th to the 19th Century".Korea Journal(Winter 2003).
• de Bary, William Theodore; Chaffee, John W., eds. (1989).Neo-confucian Education: The Formative Stage.University of California Press. pp. 455–.ISBN978-0-520-06393-8.
• de Bary, William Theodore; et al., eds. (2008).Sources of East Asian Tradition.New York: Columbia University Press.(Vol. 1ISBN978-0-231-14305-9) (Vol. 2ISBN978-0-231-14323-3)
• de Bary, William Theodore (1989).The Message of the Mind in Neo-Confucianism.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0231068085.
• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley.Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook.New York: Free, 1993. Print.
• Henderson, John B. (1998).The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns.Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.ISBN9780791437599.
• Huang, Siu-chi (1999).Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods.Westport:Greenwood Press.
• Levinson, David; Christensen, Karen, eds. (2002).Encyclopedia of Modern Asia.Vol. 4.Charles Scribner's Sons.pp. 302–307.
• Mair, Victor H.,ed. (2001).The Columbia History of Chinese Literature.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-10984-9.(Amazon Kindleedition).
• Tu Weiming.Neo-Confucian Thought in Action: Wang Yang-ming’s Youth (1472–1509).Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1976.
• Tu Weiming.Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.New York:State University of New York Press,1985.

External links

• "Neo-Confucian Philosophy".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Writings of the Orthodox Schoolfrom theSong dynasty(in English and Chinese)