Nhanda language
 | This article shouldspecify the languageof its non-English content, using{{lang}},{{transliteration}}for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}}for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code.Wikipedia'smultilingual support templatesmay also be used - notably nhafor Nhanda.(October 2024) |
| Nhanda | |
|---|---|
| Nanda, Nhanta, Nhandi | |
| Native to | Australia |
| Region | Geraldton to Shark Bay area ofWestern Australia |
| Ethnicity | Nhanda |
| Extinct | by 1975[1] |
| Revival | 11-50 (2018-19)[1] |
Pama–Nyungan
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | nha |
| Glottolog | nhan1238 |
| AIATSIS[2] | W14 |
| ELP | Nhanta |
Nhanda,also renderedNanda,NhantaandNhandi,is anAustralian Aboriginal languagefrom theMidwest regionofWestern Australia,betweenGeraldtonand theMurchison River,from the coast to about 20 kilometres (12 miles) inland. The language is now spoken, orsemi-spoken,by only a few people.
TheAIATSISAustlang database says: "According to [Juliette] Blevins (2001:3) three dialects of Nhanda can be identified: Nhanda, the northernmost dialect,WatchandiW13, the central dialect, andAmanguW12, the southern dialect. Thus Nhanda is both a language name and a dialect name ". No speakers are listed in successive tallies since 1975, but theIrra Wangga Language Centre(formerly Yamaji Language Centre) has been working on itsrevival,originally led by Blevins.[1]Nanakartiwas apparently a distinct language.
While Nhanda is usually considered a member of theKartu branchof thePama–Nyungan family,[3]distinctive features of Nhanda, relative to neighbouring languages have caused some linguists to question this classification,[4][5]and/or classify Nhanda as anisolate.
A controversial hypothesis, first raised by historianRupert Gerritsen,suggests that the unusual features of Nhanda may result from undocumentedlanguage contactduring the early modern era, withDutch– in the form ofshipwrecked seafarersstranded in Australia beforeEuropean settlementhad officially begun.[6]Gerritsen's hypothesis has been rejected by linguistJuliette Blevins,[7]an authority on Nhanda. Gerritsen critiqued the rejection of his views by Blevins in a subsequent paper, re-outlining his evidence of Dutch influence on Nhanda.[8]
Vocabulary
[edit]The Nhanda word for 'man, human being' isarnmanu.It appears that whenNorman Tindalecollected information on Nhanda (or on the closely related variety thought to have been spoken inGeraldton) he was given this word, which he recorded as 'Amangu' and believed to be the 'tribal name' for this group. Blevins provides a word list at the end of her grammar.[9]
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Phonology
[edit]Nhanda differs somewhat from its neighbouring languages in that it has aphonemicglottal stop,isinitial-dropping(i.e. it has lost many initial consonants, leading to vowel-initial words) and thestop consonantsshow a phonemic length contrast.
Vowels
[edit]| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| High | i iː | u uː |
| Low | a aː | |
- An unstressed/a/can be realised as[ə]or[ʌ].
Consonants
[edit]| Peripheral | Laminal | Apical | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Velar | Palatal | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | |||
| Stop | voiceless | p | k | c | t̪⟨th⟩ | t | ʈ⟨rt⟩ | ʔ⟨'⟩ |
| voiced | b | ɡ | ɟ⟨j⟩ | d̪⟨dh⟩ | d | ɖ⟨rd⟩ | ||
| Nasal | m | ŋ⟨ng⟩ | ɲ⟨ny⟩ | n̪⟨nh⟩ | n | ɳ⟨rn⟩ | ||
| Lateral | ʎ⟨ly⟩ | l̪⟨lh⟩ | l | ɭ⟨rl⟩ | ||||
| Rhotic | r⟨rr⟩ | ɻ⟨r⟩ | ||||||
| Semivowel | w | j⟨y⟩ | (j̪⟨yh⟩) | |||||
Grammar
[edit]Nhanda is asplit-ergativelanguage, meaning the nominals take anergative-absolutivecase system while the pronominals take anominative-accusativeone.
| Case | Suffix | Nasal Suffix |
|---|---|---|
| Ergative | -lu | -nngu |
| Absolutive | ∅ | ∅ |
| Nominative | ∅ | ∅ |
| Accusative | -nha | -nha |
| Instrumental | -lu | -nngu |
| Locative | -gu | -nngu |
| Locative path | -galu | -nngalu |
| Allative | -nngu | -nngu |
| Ablative | -ngu | -ngu |
| Dative | -wu | -wu |
ngayi
1.SG
nyina-nhaa
sit-NPAST
mambu-gu
bone-LOC
I'm sitting on a bone
Nhanda distinguishes singular (unmarked), dual (-thada), and plural forms (-nu). The dual suffix is a reduced form ofwuthada('two'). If a plural suffix is applied to a root that ends with anu,base-final umlaut is triggered and theubecomes ani.Case and number suffixes have free order.[9]
There are no true unbound third person pronouns in Nhanda.
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | ngayi | ngayi-thada | ngayi-nu |
| 2nd | nyini | nyini-thada | nyini-nu |
Bound pronouns, however, are a different case.
| Direct Object | Subject | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -nha | -wa | -tha |
| 1DU,PL | -wana | -wana | -wana |
| 2SG | -mda | -nyja | -nygu |
| 2DU,PL | |||
| 3SG | unmarked | unmarked | -ra |
| 3DU,PL | -ndha |
Nhanda verbs consist of a root followed by zero or more derivational suffixes. The two major conjugation classes are called NH and Y. There is no dominant word order.
| NH | Y | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Past | -nhii | Past Perfective | -i |
| Past Imperfective | -nu | ||
| Non-past | -nhaa | Present | -a |
| Future Realis | -ndha | ||
| Future Irrealis | -nda, -ndha | Future Irrealis | -nda, -ndha |
| Imperative | -ga, ∅ | Imperative | -ga |
| Ambulative | -nggula | Ambulative | -nggula |
Language revival
[edit]Juliette Blevins, at the time employed at the University of Western Australia, researched Nhanda in the 1990s and early 2000s in collaboration with the Yamaji Language Centre (now the Irra Wangga Language Centre) and published a grammar of the language.[9]An illustrated topical dictionary,Nhanda Wangganhaa,was published by the Yamaji Language Centre in 1998.[10]Other published works include papers on itsphonologyand history.[11]Doug Marmion has also been working on the language.[1]
References
[edit]Cited references
[edit]- ^abcd"W14: Nhanda / Nanda^".Austlang.AIATSIS. 26 July 2019.Retrieved14 January2020.
- ^W14Nhanda at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database,Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
- ^Bowern, Claire. 2011. "How Many Languages Were Spoken in Australia?",Anggarrgoon: Australian languages on the web,December 23, 2011 (correctedFebruary 6, 2012)
- ^Blevins, Juliette (December 1999). "Nhanta and its position within Pama–Nyungan".Oceanic Linguistics.38(2). University of Hawai'i Press: 297–320.doi:10.2307/3623295.JSTOR3623295.
- ^Bowern & Koch (2004)Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method
- ^Gerristen, Rupert (1994).And their ghosts may be heard.Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press.
- ^Blevins, Juliette (1998). "A Dutch influence on Nhanda? Wanyjidaga innga!".Journal of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies:43–46.
- ^Dutch influence on Nhanda
- ^abcdBlevins, Juliette (2001).Nhanda: An aboriginal language of Western Australia.Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 192.ISBN9780824823757.
- ^Yamaji Language Centre (1998).Nhanda Wangganhaa = Talking Nhanda: an illustrated wordlist of the Nhanda language of Western Australia.Geraldton, Western Australia: Yamaji Language Centre. p. 62.ISBN9781875661015.
- ^"Midwest Languages: Nhanda".Bundiyarra Aboriginal Community Aboriginal Corporation.Retrieved14 January2020.
Other references
[edit]- Blevins, Juliette; Marmion, Doug (1994). "Nhanta historical phonology".Australian Journal of Linguistics.14(2): 193–216.doi:10.1080/07268609408599509.
- Blevins, Juliette; Marmion, Doug (1995). "Nhanta glottal stop".Oceanic Linguistics.34(1). University of Hawai'i Press: 139–160.doi:10.2307/3623116.JSTOR3623116.