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Noahidism

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Therainbowis the unofficial symbol of Noahidism, recalling theGenesis flood narrativein which a rainbow appears toNoahafter the Flood; it representsGod's promise to Noah to refrain fromflooding the Earth and destroying all life again.[1]
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Noahidism(/ˈnoʊəhaɪdɪzəm/) orNoachidism(/ˈnoʊəxaɪdɪzəm/) is amonotheisticJewishreligious movementaimed atnon-Jews,[9]based upon theSeven Laws of Noah[10]and their traditional interpretations withinOrthodox Judaism.[11]

According to theJewish law,non-Jews (gentiles) are not obligated toconvert to Judaism,but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in theWorld to Come(Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous.[17]The penalty for violating any of the Noahide laws is discussed in theTalmud,[12]but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large.[12]Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to asBnei Noach(Hebrew:בני נח,"Sons of Noah" ) orNoahides(/ˈnoʊ.əhaɪdiːz/).[18]The modern Noahide movement was founded in the 1990s byOrthodox JewishrabbisfromIsrael,[2][3][7]mainly tied toChabad-Lubavitchandreligious Zionistorganizations,[2][3][7]includingThe Temple Institute.[2][3][7]

Historically, the Hebrew termBnei Noachhas been applied to all non-Jews asdescendants of Noah.[3][12][13]However, nowadays it is primarily used to refer specifically to those "Righteous Gentiles" who observe the Seven Laws of Noah.[3][4][5]Noahide communities have spread and developed primarily in theUnited States,United Kingdom,Latin America,Nigeria,thePhilippines,andRussia.[5]According to a Noahide source in 2018,there are over 20,000 official Noahides around the world and the country with the greatest number is the Philippines.[3][5][7]

The Noahic Covenant

[edit]
Main article:Seven Laws of Noah
Further information:Covenant (biblical) § Noahic covenant

The theological basis for theseven commandmentsof theNoahic Covenantis said to be derived interpretatively from demands addressed toAdam[19]and toNoah,[20]who are believed to be the progenitors of humankind inJudaism,and therefore to be regarded asuniversal moral laws.[13][21]The seven commandments of the Noahic Covenant enumerated in theBabylonian Talmud(Avodah Zarah8:4,Sanhedrin56a-b) are:[24]

  1. Do not worshipidols.[25]
  2. Do notcurseGod.[26]
  3. Do notmurder.[27]
  4. Do not commitadulteryorsexual immorality.[28]
  5. Do notsteal.[29]
  6. Do noteat flesh torn from a living animal.[30]
  7. Establishcourts of justice.[32]

According to the AmericanRoman Catholic priestanddogmatic theologianBruce R. Barnes, the obligation to follow the Noahic Covenant and its seven commandments was incumbent upon theJewish peopleas well, and remained effective for them until theTen Commandmentswere given toMosesonMount Sinai:[13]

With the giving of theTorah,God chose a people to live by His Commandments. This is a critical moment for those who believe that revelation is the only authentic expression of law. Such individuals think that the Revealed Law predominates and that theNoahide Lawsare absorbed into theMosaic Laws,thereby losing their independence. This unification of the two sets of law during the revelation at Sinai strengthened and confirmed (rather than diminished) the obligation fornon-Jewsto follow the Noahide Laws.Righteous Gentileswere obliged to follow the Seven Commandments and, by association, the Sinaitic Commandments because the Noahide Laws were now considered subsumed into the Sinai Laws. This did not alter the distinction between the two sets of people who followed the respective laws. [...] The relationship between the Noahites and the Jews would always be similar to the relationship between a priest and a faithful layman. The obligation to follow the Noahide Laws was incumbent upon the Jews from Adam to the Revelation at Sinai. Virtually allJewish thinkerswho dealt with this issue kept this in mind.[13]

Historical precedents

[edit]
Main articles:Ger toshavandGod-fearer
Further information:Hellenistic JudaismandHistory of the Jews in the Roman Empire

The concept of "Righteous Gentiles" (gerim toshavim) has a few precedents in thehistory of Judaism,primarily duringBiblical timesand theRoman domination of the Mediterranean.In theHebrew Bible,it is reported that the legal status ofger toshav(Biblical Hebrew:גר תושב,ger:"foreigner" or "alien" +toshav:"resident",lit. 'resident alien')[37]was granted to thoseGentiles(non-Jews) living in theLand of Israelwho did not want to convert to Judaism but agreed to observe the Seven Laws of Noah.[38]TheSebomenoiorGod-fearersof theRoman Empirewere another ancient example of non-Jews being included within the Jewish community without converting to Judaism.[2][39]

During theGolden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula,themedievalJewish philosopherandrabbiMoses Maimonides(1135–1204) wrote in thehalakhiclegal codeMishneh Torahthat Gentiles (non-Jews) must perform exclusively the Seven Laws of Noah and refrain fromstudying the Torahor performing anyJewish commandment,including resting on theShabbat;[40]however, Maimonides also states that if Gentiles want to perform any Jewish commandment besides the Seven Laws of Noah according to the correct halakhic procedure, they are not prevented from doing so.[41]According to Maimonides, teaching non-Jews to follow the Seven Laws of Noah is incumbent on all Jews, a commandment in and of itself.[4]Nevertheless, the majority ofrabbinic authoritiesover the centuries have rejected Maimonides' opinion, and the dominant halakhic consensus has always been that Jews are not required to spread the Noahide laws to non-Jews.[4]

During the 1860s inWestern Europe,the idea of Noahidism as a universal Judaic religion for non-Jews was developed byElijah Benamozegh,[2][42]anItalianSephardicOrthodox rabbi and renownedJewish Kabbalist.[43]Between the years 1920s–1930s, French writerAimé Pallière[fr]adopted the Noahide laws at the suggestion of his teacher Elijah Benamozegh; afterwards, Pallière spread Benamozegh's doctrine in Europe and never formally converted to Judaism.[2][21]Modern historians argue that Benamozegh's role in the debate on Jewish universalism in the history ofJewish philosophywas focused on the Seven Laws of Noah as the means subservient to the shift ofJewish ethicsfrom particularism to universalism, although the arguments that he used to support his universalistic viewpoint were neither original nor unheard in the history of this debate.[42]According toClémence Boulouque,Carl and Bernice Witten Associate Professor of Jewish and Israel Studies atColumbia University in the City of New York,Benamozegh ignored theethnocentricbiasescontained in the Noahide laws, whereas some contemporaryright-wingJewish political movementshave embraced them.[42]

Modern Noahide movement

[edit]
Main article:Religious Zionism
Further information:Jewish fundamentalismandJewish supremacism

Menachem Mendel Schneerson,the Lubavitcher Rebbe, encouragedhis followerson many occasions to preach the Seven Laws of Noah,[2][4]devoting some of his addresses to the subtleties of this code.[44][45][46]Since the 1990s,[2][3]Orthodox Jewish rabbis from Israel, most notably those affiliated toChabad-Lubavitchandreligious Zionistorganizations,[2][3][7]includingThe Temple Institute,[2][3][7]have set up the modern Noahide movement.[2][3][7]These Noahide organizations, led by religious Zionist and Orthodox Jewish rabbis, are aimed atnon-Jewstoproselytizeamong them and commit them to follow the Noahide laws.[2][3][7]According to Rachel Z. Feldman,[3]American anthropologist and Assistant Professor of Religious Studies atDartmouth College,many of the Orthodox Jewish rabbis involved in mentoring Noahides are supporters of theThird Temple movementwho believe that the messianic era shall begin with the establishment of aJewish theocratic stateinIsrael,supported by communities of Noahides worldwide:[3]

Today, nearly 2,000Filipinosconsider themselves members of the "Children of Noah", anewJudaic faiththat is growing into the tens of thousands worldwide asex-Christiansencounter forms of Jewish learning online. Under the tutelage ofOrthodox Jewishrabbis,Filipino "Noahides", as they call themselves, study Torah, observe the Sabbath, and passionately support a form ofmessianic Zionism.Filipino Noahidesbelieve that Jews are a racially superior people,with an innate ability to access divinity. According to their rabbi mentors, they are forbidden from performing Jewish rituals and even reading certain Jewish texts. These restrictions have necessitated the creation of new, distinctly Noahide ritual practices and prayers modeled after Jewish ones. Filipino Noahides are practicing a new faith that alsoaffirms the superiority of Judaism and Jewish biblical rightto theLand of Israel,in line with the aims of the growing messianic Third Temple Movement inJerusalem.[3]

Feldman describes Noahidism as a "newworld religion"that" carv[es] out a place for non-Jews in themessianic Zionist project".[3]She characterizes Noahide ideology in the Philippines and elsewhere in the global south as having a "markedly racial dimension" constructed around "an essential categorical difference between Jews and Noahides".[3]David Novak,professor ofJewish theologyandethicsat theUniversity of Toronto,has denounced the modern Noahide movement by stating that "If Jews are telling Gentiles what to do, it's a form ofimperialism".[4]

High Council ofBnei Noah

[edit]
Main article:2004 attempt to revive the Sanhedrin

In 2005 a "High Council ofBnei Noah",set up to represent Noahide communities around the world, was endorsed bya group that claimed to be the new Sanhedrin.[47]The High Council ofBnei Noahconsists of a group of Noahides who, at the request of thenascent Sanhedrin,gathered inJerusalemon 10 January 2006 to be recognized as an international Noahide organization for the purpose of serving as a bridge between the nascent Sanhedrin and Noahides worldwide.[48]There were ten initial members who flew to Israel and pledged to uphold the Seven Laws of Noah and to conduct themselves under the authority of the Noahidebeth din(religious court) of the nascent Sanhedrin.[48]

Acknowledgment

[edit]

Meir KahaneandShlomo Carlebachorganized one of the first Noahide conferences in the 1980s. In 1990, Kahane was the keynote speaker at the First International Conference of the Descendants of Noah, the first Noahide gathering, inFort Worth, Texas.[2][3][7]After theassassination of Meir Kahanethat same year,The Temple Institute,which advocates torebuild the Third Jewish Templeon theTemple MountinJerusalem,started to promote the Noahide laws as well.[2][7]

TheChabad-Lubavitchmovement has been one of the most active in Noahide outreach, believing that there is spiritual and societal value for non-Jews in at least simply acknowledging the Noahide laws.[2][3][4][5]In 1982, Chabad-Lubavitch had a reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in aU.S. Presidential proclamation:the "Proclamation 4921",[49]signed by the then-U.S. PresidentRonald Reagan.[49]TheUnited States Congress,recalling House Joint Resolution 447 and in celebration ofMenachem Mendel Schneerson's 80th birthday, proclaimed 4 April 1982, as a "National Day of Reflection".[49]

In 1989 and 1990, they had another reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in aU.S. Presidential proclamation:the "Proclamation 5956",[50]signed by then-PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush.[50]The United States Congress, recalling House Joint Resolution 173 and in celebration of Menachem Mendel Schneerson's 87th birthday, proclaimed 16 April 1989, and 6 April 1990, as "Education Day, U.S.A."[50]

In January 2004, the spiritual leader of theDruze community in Israel,SheikhMowafak Tarif,met with a representative of Chabad-Lubavitch to sign a declaration calling on all non-Jews in Israel to observe the Noahide laws; the mayor of theArab cityofShefa-'Amr(Shfaram) also signed the document.[51]

In March 2016, theSephardicChief Rabbi of Israel,Yitzhak Yosef,declared during a sermon that Jewish law requires that the only non-Jews allowed to live in Israel are obligated to follow the Noahide laws:[52][53]

According to Jewish law, it's forbidden for a non-Jew to live in the Land of Israel – unless he has accepted the seven Noahide laws,[...] If the non-Jew is unwilling to accept these laws, then we can send him toSaudi Arabia,[...] When there will be full, true redemption, we will do this.[52]

Yosef further added:

[N]on-Jews shouldn't live in the land of Israel.[...] If our hand were firm, if we had the power to rule, then non-Jews must not live in Israel. But, our hand is not firm.[...] Who, otherwise be the servants? Who will be our helpers? This is why we leave them in Israel.[54]

Yosef's sermon sparked outrage in Israel and was fiercely criticized by several human rights associations,NGOsandmembers of the Knesset;[52]Jonathan Greenblatt,Anti-Defamation League's CEO and national director, and Carole Nuriel, Anti-Defamation League's Israel Office acting director, issued a strong denunciation of Yosef's sermon:[52][54]

The statement by Chief Rabbi Yosef is shocking and unacceptable. It is unconscionable that the Chief Rabbi, an official representative of the State of Israel, would express such intolerant and ignorant views about Israel's non-Jewish population – including the millions of non-Jewish citizens.

As a spiritual leader, Rabbi Yosef should be using his influence to preach tolerance and compassion towards others, regardless of their faith, and not seek to exclude and demean a large segment of Israelis.

We call upon the Chief Rabbi to retract his statements and apologize for any offense caused by his comments.[54]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Segal, Alan F.(1993)."Conversion and Universalism: Opposites that Attract".In McLean, Bradley H. (ed.).Origins and Method: Towards a New Understanding of Judaism and Christianity.Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series. Vol. 86.BloomsburyandSheffield:Sheffield Academic Press.pp. 177–178.ISBN9780567495570.Furthermore, the sign of the Noahide covenant, therainbow,is available to all humanity to symbolizeGod's promise of safety. And it is completely outside of the specialcovenant with Abraham and his descendants.The covenant withNoahis expanded to the entireprimeval period,encompassing all the revealed commandments precedingSinai.
  2. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrsFeldman, Rachel Z. (8 October 2017)."The Bnei Noah (Children of Noah)".World Religions and Spirituality Project.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2020.Retrieved3 November2020.
  3. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwFeldman, Rachel Z. (August 2018)."The Children of Noah: Has Messianic Zionism Created a New World Religion?"(PDF).Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions.22(1).Berkeley:University of California Press:115–128.doi:10.1525/nr.2018.22.1.115.eISSN1541-8480.ISSN1092-6690.LCCN98656716.OCLC36349271.S2CID149940089.Retrieved31 May2020– viaProject MUSE.
  4. ^abcdefghijkKress, Michael (2018)."The Modern Noahide Movement".My Jewish Learning.Retrieved31 May2020.
  5. ^abcdefghStrauss, Ilana E. (26 January 2016)."The Gentiles Who Act Like Jews: Who are these non-Jews practicing Orthodox Judaism?".Tablet Magazine.Retrieved31 October2020.
  6. ^abcdTabachnick, Toby (22 July 2010)."Noahides establish website for interested followers".The Jewish Chronicle of Pittsburgh.Pittsburgh.Retrieved31 October2020.
  7. ^abcdefghijklmnIlany, Ofri (12 September 2018)."The Messianic Zionist Religion Whose Believers Worship Judaism (But Can't Practice It)".Haaretz.Tel Aviv.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2020.Retrieved31 May2020.
  8. ^abcHarris, Ben (26 June 2009)."Torah-embracing non-Jews fuel their movement online".JWeekly.San Francisco.Retrieved31 October2020.
  9. ^[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
  10. ^[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
  11. ^[2][3][4][5][6][7]
  12. ^abcdefghijklSinger, Isidore;Greenstone, Julius H. (1906)."Noachian Laws".Jewish Encyclopedia.Kopelman Foundation.Archivedfrom the original on 5 February 2012.Retrieved10 November2020.
  13. ^abcdefBarnes, Bruce R. (2021).Wierciński, Andrzej(ed.)."The Noahide Laws and the Universal Fellowship with God"(PDF).Rocznik Teologii Katolickiej.Biblical Hermeneutics.XX.Białystok:International Institute for Hermeneuticson behalf of theUniversity of Białystok:5–32.doi:10.15290/rtk.2021.20.01.hdl:11320/12441.ISSN1644-8855.S2CID246335626.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 May 2022.Retrieved19 March2023.
  14. ^abcdefghiReiner, Gary (2011) [1997]."Ha-Me'iri's Theory of Religious Toleration".In Laursen, John Christian; Nederman, Cary J. (eds.).Beyond the Persecuting Society: Religious Toleration Before the Enlightenment.Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press.pp. 86–87.doi:10.9783/9780812205862.71.ISBN978-0-8122-0586-2.
  15. ^Moses Maimonides(2012)."Hilkhot M'lakhim (Laws of Kings and Wars)".Mishneh Torah.Translated by Brauner, Reuven.Sefaria.p. 8:14.Retrieved10 August2020.
  16. ^Encyclopedia Talmudit(Hebrew ed., Israel, 5741/1981, entryBen Noah,end of article); note the variant reading ofMaimonidesand the references in the footnote.
  17. ^[3][4][12][13][14][15][16]
  18. ^[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][13]
  19. ^Genesis 2:16
  20. ^See Genesis Rabbah 34; Sanhedrin 59b
  21. ^abSchwarzschild, Steven S.(2006)."Noachide Laws".Encyclopaedia Judaica.Vol. 15 (2nd ed.).Farmington Hills, Michigan:Macmillan Reference USA/Keter Publishing House. p. 284.ISBN978-002-865-928-2.Archivedfrom the original on 12 October 2022.Retrieved19 March2023– viaEncyclopedia.com.
  22. ^abcdefghBerkowitz, Beth (2017)."Approaches to Foreign Law in Biblical Israel and Classical Judaism through the Medieval Period".InHayes, Christine(ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Judaism and Law.New York City:Cambridge University Press.pp. 147–149.ISBN978-1-107-03615-4.LCCN2016028972.
  23. ^abcdefgh"Noahide Laws".Encyclopædia Britannica.Edinburgh:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.14 January 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2016.Retrieved10 November2020.Noahide Laws,also calledNoachian Laws,a JewishTalmudicdesignation for seven biblical laws given toAdamand toNoahbefore therevelation to MosesonMt. Sinaiand consequently binding on all mankind.
    Beginning withGenesis2:16,the Babylonian Talmud listed the first six commandments as prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, and robbery and the positive command to establish courts of justice (with all that this implies). Afterthe Flooda seventh commandment, given to Noah, forbade the eating of flesh cut from a living animal (Genesis 9:4). Though the number of laws was later increased to 30 with the addition of prohibitions against castration, sorcery, and other practices, the "seven laws", with minor variations, retained their original status as authoritative commandments and as the source of other laws. As basic statutes safeguardingmonotheismand guaranteeing properethical conductin society, these laws provided a legal framework foralien residentsin Jewish territory.Maimonidesthus regarded anyone who observed these laws as one "assured of a portion in theworld to come."
  24. ^[12][14][22][23]
  25. ^[12][14][22][23]
  26. ^[12][14][22][23]
  27. ^[12][14][22][23]
  28. ^[12][14][22][23]
  29. ^[12][14][22][23]
  30. ^[12][14][22][23]
  31. ^"Sanhedrin 56".Babylonian Talmud.Halakhah.
  32. ^[12][14][22][23][31]
  33. ^abBromiley, Geoffrey W.(1986).The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia.Vol. 3 (Fully Revised ed.).Grand Rapids, Michigan:Eerdmans.p. 1010.ISBN0-8028-3783-2.In rabbinic literature theger toshabwas a Gentile who observed the Noachian commandments but was not considered a convert to Judaism because he did not agree to circumcision.[...] some scholars have made the mistake of calling theger toshaba "proselyte" or "semiproselyte." But theger toshabwas really a resident alien in Israel. Some scholars have claimed that the term "those who fear God"(yir᾿ei Elohim/Shamayim) was used in rabbinic literature to denote Gentiles who were on the fringe of the synagogue. They were not converts to Judaism, although they were attracted to the Jewish religion and observed part of the law.
  34. ^abBleich, J. David(1995).Contemporary Halakhic Problems.Vol. 4. New York City:KTAV Publishing House(Yeshiva University Press). p. 161.ISBN0-88125-474-6.Rashi,Yevamot48b, maintains that a resident alien (ger toshav) is obliged to observeShabbat.Theger toshav,in accepting the Seven Commandments of the Sons of Noah, has renounced idolatry and[...] thereby acquires a status similar to that ofAbraham.[...] Indeed,Rabbenu Nissim,Avodah Zarah67b, declares that the status on an unimmersed convert is inferior to that of ager toshavbecause the former's acceptance of the "yoke of the commandments" is intended to be binding only upon subsequent immersion. Moreover, the institution ofger toshavas a formal halakhic construct has lapsed with thedestruction of the Temple.
  35. ^abSinger, Isidore;Greenstone, Julius H. (1906)."Noachian Laws".Jewish Encyclopedia.Kopelman Foundation.Archivedfrom the original on 5 February 2012.Retrieved10 November2020.The Seven Laws.Laws which were supposed by the Rabbis to have been binding upon mankind at large even before therevelation at Sinai,and which are still binding upon non-Jews. The termNoachianindicates the universality of these ordinances, since the whole human race was supposed to be descended from the threesons of Noah,who alone survivedthe Flood.[...] Basing their views on the passage in Genesis 2:16, they declared that the following six commandments were enjoined upon Adam: (1) not to worship idols; (2) not to blaspheme the name of God; (3) to establish courts of justice; (4) not to kill; (5) not to commit adultery; and (6) not to rob (Gen. R. xvi. 9, xxiv. 5; Cant. R. i. 16; comp. Seder 'Olam Rabbah, ed. Ratner, ch. v. and notes, Wilna, 1897; Maimonides, "Yad," Melakim, ix. 1). A seventh commandment was added after the Flood—not to eat flesh that had been cut from a living animal (Genesis 9:4).[...] Thus, theTalmudfrequently speaks of "the seven laws of the sons of Noah," which were regarded as obligatory upon all mankind, in contradistinction to those that were binding upon Israelites only (Tosef., 'Ab. Zarah, ix. 4; Sanh. 56a et seq.).[...] He who observed the seven Noachian laws was regarded as a domiciled alien, as one of the pious of the Gentiles, and was assured of a portion in theworld to come(Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 1; Sanh. 105a; comp. ib. 91b; "Yad," l.c. viii. 11).
  36. ^abJacobs, Joseph;Hirsch, Emil G.(1906)."Proselyte: Semi-Converts".Jewish Encyclopedia.Kopelman Foundation.Archivedfrom the original on 31 May 2012.Retrieved10 November2020.In order to find a precedent the rabbis went so far as to assume thatproselytesof this order were recognized inBiblical law,applying to them the term "toshab" ( "sojourner," "aborigine," referring to theCanaanites;seeMaimonides' explanation in "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7; see Grätz, l.c. p. 15), in connection with "ger" (see Ex. xxv. 47, where the better reading would be "we-toshab" ). Another name for one of this class was "proselyte of the gate" ( "ger ha-sha'ar," that is, one under Jewish civil jurisdiction; comp. Deut. v. 14, xiv. 21, referring to the stranger who had legal claims upon the generosity and protection of his Jewish neighbors). In order to be recognized as one of these the neophyte had publicly to assume, before three "ḥaberim," or men of authority, the solemn obligation not to worship idols, an obligation which involved the recognition of the seven Noachian injunctions as binding ('Ab. Zarah 64b; "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7).[...] The more rigorous seem to have been inclined to insist upon such converts observing the entire Law, with the exception of the reservations and modifications explicitly made in their behalf. The more lenient were ready to accord them full equality with Jews as soon as they had solemnly forsworn idolatry. The "via media" was taken by those that regarded public adherence to the seven Noachian precepts as the indispensable prerequisite (Gerim iii.; 'Ab. Zarah 64b; Yer. Yeb. 8d; Grätz, l.c. pp. 19–20). The outward sign of this adherence to Judaism was the observance of the Sabbath (Grätz, l.c. pp. 20 et seq.; but comp. Ker. 8b).
  37. ^[33][34][35][36]
  38. ^[33][34][35][36]
  39. ^Goodman, Martin(2007)."Identity and Authority in Ancient Judaism".Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays.Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. Vol. 66.Leiden:Brill Publishers.pp. 30–32.doi:10.1163/ej.9789004153097.i-275.7.ISBN978-90-04-15309-7.ISSN1871-6636.LCCN2006049637.S2CID161369763.
  40. ^Moses Maimonides(2012)."Hilkhot M'lakhim (Laws of Kings and Wars)".Mishneh Torah.Translated by Brauner, Reuven.Sefaria.p. 10:9.Retrieved10 August2020.
  41. ^Moses Maimonides(2012)."Hilkhot M'lakhim (Laws of Kings and Wars)".Mishneh Torah.Translated by Brauner, Reuven.Sefaria.p. 10:10.Retrieved10 August2020.
  42. ^abcBoulouque, Clémence(2020). "Situating Benamozegh in the Debate on Jewish Universalism".Another Modernity: Elia Benamozegh's Jewish Universalism.Stanford Studies in Jewish History and Culture.BerlinandRedwood City:De Gruyter/Stanford University Press.pp. 63–82.doi:10.1515/9781503613119-009.ISBN9781503613119.S2CID241853880.
  43. ^Kogan, Michael S. (2008)."Three Jewish Theologians of Christianity: Elijah Benamozegh (1823–1900)".Opening the Covenant: A Jewish Theology of Christianity.New York:Oxford University Press.pp. 80–84.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195112597.003.0003.ISBN978-0-19-511259-7.S2CID170858477.
  44. ^Schneerson, Menachem Mendel(1979).Likkutei Sichot[Collected Talks] (in Yiddish). Vol. 4.Brooklyn:Kehot Publication Society.p. 1094.ISBN978-0-8266-5722-0.
  45. ^Schneerson, Menachem Mendel(1985).Likkutei Sichot[Collected Talks] (in Yiddish). Vol. 26.Brooklyn:Kehot Publication Society.pp. 132–144.ISBN978-0-8266-5749-7.
  46. ^Schneerson, Menachem Mendel(1987).Likkutei Sichot[Collected Talks] (in Yiddish). Vol. 35.Brooklyn:Kehot Publication Society.p. 97.ISBN978-0-8266-5781-7.
  47. ^HaLevi, Ezra (28 September 2005)."Sanhedrin Moves to Establish Council For Noahides".Arutz Sheva.Beit El.Retrieved1 November2020.
  48. ^abHaLevi, Ezra (10 January 2006)."A group of non-Jewish delegates have come to Jerusalem to pledge their loyalty to the Laws of Noah".Arutz Sheva.Beit El.Retrieved1 November2020.
  49. ^abcWoolley, John; Peters, Gerhard (3 April 1982)."Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States: 1981–1989 – Proclamation 4921—National Day of Reflection".The American Presidency Project.University of California, Santa Barbara.Retrieved9 November2020.
  50. ^abcWoolley, John; Peters, Gerhard (14 April 1989)."George Bush, 41st President of the United States: 1989–1993 – Proclamation 5956—Education Day, U.S.A., 1989 and 1990".The American Presidency Project.University of California, Santa Barbara.Retrieved1 November2020.
  51. ^"Druze Religious Leader commits to Noachide" Seven Laws "".Arutz Sheva.Beit El.18 January 2004.Retrieved1 November2020.
  52. ^abcdSharon, Jeremy (28 March 2016)."Non-Jews in Israel must keep Noahide laws, chief rabbi says".The Jerusalem Post.Jerusalem.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2016.Retrieved10 November2020.
  53. ^"Israel 2016 International Religious Freedom Report: Israel and the Occupied Territories"(PDF).State.gov.US Department of State-Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.2019.Retrieved1 June2020.
  54. ^abcGreenblatt, Jonathan;Nuriel, Carole (28 March 2016)."ADL: Israeli Chief Rabbi Statement Against Non-Jews Living in Israel is Shocking and Unacceptable".Adl.org.New York City:Anti-Defamation League.Archivedfrom the original on 14 March 2017.Retrieved10 November2020.

Further reading

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