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OMON

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This article is about the Russian special military police force. For the Belarusian special police force, seeOMON (Belarus).

Special Purpose Mobile Unit
Отряд мобильный особого назначения
Patch of OMON
Active5 May 1919;105 years ago(1919-05-05)
Country
AgencyNational Guard of Russia
TypeGendarmerie
Common nameOmonovtsy,"Black Berets"
AbbreviationOMOH/ОMON
Structure
Officersc. 20,000 (in Russia)
Notables
Significant operation(s)
Anniversaries3 October (OMON Day/День ОМОН)

OMON[1]is a system of Militaryspecial policeunits within the Armed Forces of Russia. It previously operated within the structures of theSovietand RussianMinistries of Internal Affairs(MVD). Originating as thespecial forcesunit of the SovietMilitsiyain 1988, it has played major roles in several armed conflicts during and following the 1991dissolution of the Soviet Union.

OMON is much larger and better known thanSOBR,another special-police branch of the National Guard of Russia. In modern contexts, OMON serves as ariot policegroup, or as agendarmerie-likeparamilitaryforce. OMON units also exist in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and otherpost-Soviet states.However, some post-Soviet units have changed names and acronyms. Russian-speakers commonly refer to OMON officers asomonovtsy(Russian:омоновцы;singular: omonovyets –Russian:омоновец).

On 5 April 2016 OMON became part of the newly-established National Guard of Russia, ending its years as part of the MVD.[2]: 20  The MVD continues to operate thePolice of Russia.[3]

History

[edit]

Special purposemilitiaunits were formed on May 5, 1919 in theRussian statein the structure of the “white” (Siberian) militia.[4]Alexander Kolchakemphasized that

OMON is a combat unit for the protection and restoration of state order and public peace, serves as a reserve for the formation of militia in areas liberated from Soviet power to train experienced police officers

These militia units operated where open war gave way topartisan war.The detachment consisted of four foot and one horse platoons.[5]The staff included 285 people.[4]In those days, there was no such thing as a“omonovets”therefore these units were called"guards".[6]

Soviet OMON originated in 1979, when the first Sovietpolice tactical unitwas founded in preparation for the1980 Summer OlympicsinMoscowto ensure that there were no terrorist incidents like theMunich massacreduring the1972 Summer Olympics.Subsequently, the unit was to be utilized in emergencies such as high-risk arrests,hostagecrises and acts of terror.

Dmitry MedvedevinspectingShchyolkovoOMON in 2011

The current OMON system is the successor of that group and was founded on 3 October 1988 in Moscow and was called the Militsiya Squad of Special Assignment.[7]Special police detachments were often manned by former soldiers of theSoviet Armyand veterans of theSoviet–Afghan War.OMON units were used asriot policeto control and stopdemonstrationsandhooliganism,as well as to respond to emergency situations involving violent crime. The units later took on a wider range of police duties, includingcordonand streetpatrolactions, and evenparamilitaryandmilitary-style operations.

Following Russia's2011 police reform,Russian OMON units were to be renamed Distinctive Purpose Teams (KON), while OMSN (SOBR) would become Special Purpose Teams (KSN).[8]It was announced that Special Purpose Centers for Rapid Deployment forces would also be created in Russian regions, to include regional OMON and OMSN units. In essence, all policespetsnaz(special designation) units were brought together under the joint command of theInterior Ministry[9]— the Center for Operational Spetsnaz and Aviation Forces ofMVD(Центр специального назначения сил оперативного реагирования и авиации МВД России).

In January 2012, Russia's OMON was renamed fromotryad militsii osobogo naznacheniya,(Special Purpose Militia Unit) tootryad mobilniy osobogo naznacheniya(Special Purpose Mobile Unit), keeping the acronym.

Soviet OMON activities

[edit]
  • On 20 January 1991, Soviet-loyalistRigaOMON attacked Latvia'sInterior Ministry,killing six people during theJanuary 1991 eventswhich was not confirmed by an internal investigation, in a failed pro-Moscow coup attempt following theLatvian SSR's declaration of independence.[10]Seven OMON officers were subsequently found guilty by theRiga DistrictCourt and were sentenced in absentia. Part of the Riga OMON troops remained loyal to the USSR and their oath of allegiance. The unit was evacuated from Riga to Tyumen in Russia by air force together with all ammunition, vehicles and firearms, and incorporated with local Tyumen OMON.
  • A series ofattacks on border outpostsof the newly independent Republic of Lithuania took place during the period of January to July 1991. These resulted in severalsummary execution-style deaths of unarmed customs officers and other people (including former members ofVilniusOMON), which were attributed to Riga OMON.[11]Some sources say that Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevhad lost control of the unit during that period. For years, Lithuania has continued to demand that the persons suspected in these incidents should be tried in Lithuania; one suspect was arrested in Latvia in November 2008.[12]
  • The April–May 1991Operation Ringby theAzerbaijan SSROMON and the Soviet Army against theArmenian irregular unitsin theNagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast,resulted in forty deaths of mostly Armenian civilians, and the forced displacement of nearly 10,000 ethnic Armenians. In later attacks, several more Armenian civilians were killed; others suffered abuse which included instances of rape. In continuing fighting in this area, fourteen Azerbaijani OMON members and one Armenian paramilitary fighter were reported killed in September 1991.[13]
  • Violent and often armed clashes occurred between theGeorgian SSR's OMON and opponents of the first Georgian PresidentZviad Gamsakhurdiaprior to theGeorgian Civil Warof 1991–1993. Eleven combatants on both sides, including Georgian OMON members and regular militsiya officers, were reported killed in skirmishes during September and October 1991. There were also allegations of OMON firing at unarmed protesters.[13]

Post-Soviet OMON activities

[edit]
Saint Petersburg,Field of Mars,12 June 2017, OMON during the rally
  • Prior to the creation of theArmed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan,the bulk of the fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh, on the Azeri side, was conducted by the post-Soviet OMON units and irregular forces. This included the defence of the village ofKhojalyby a group of Azeri OMON troops and armed volunteers against the Armenian andRussian Armyforces prior to, and during, theKhojaly massacreon 25 February 1992; most of the group involved died along with several hundred other Azeris, mostly civilians.
  • South Ossetianad hoc OMON, organized by a group ofTskhinvaliinternal affairs division militsiya officers, was reportedly the most combat-ready force on the separatist side at the outset of theSouth Ossetia Warin April 1992.
  • In Tajikistan,the civil warbegan after local OMON began defecting to anti-Nabiyevprotesters in May 1992.[14]The country's minorityPamiri peoplelargely backed theUnited Tajik Opposition,and for that reason were targeted for massacres by pro-government forces during the bloody first phase of the war in 1992–1993. A significant portion of the Tajikistan MVD's command structure and its OMON consisted mainly of Pamiris who were then either killed or forced to flee toGorno-Badakhshan.[15]
  • North Ossetia's OMON participated in the short but vicious 1992East Prigorodny Conflictin Russia. They killed or 'disappeared' hundreds of local indigenousIngush people.Ossetian OMON reportedly massacred residents of Ingush villages that had first been shelled by Russian federal army tanks that were officially in to the region for 'peacekeeping' purposes.[16]
  • Following theWar of Transnistriain 1992, several high-ranking former OMON andKGBofficers assumed senior posts in Moldova's pro-Russian separatist region ofTransnistria.Former Riga OMON MajorVladimir Antyufeyev,who had led the attacks against Latvian authorities in 1991 and was put on theInterpolwanted list, renamed himself "General Vadim Shevtsov" and became Transnistria's minister of state security and intelligence. He is also alleged to have overseen the self-declared republic's organized criminal smuggling rackets.[17][18][19]In 2012, the KGB of Transnistria announced it has "launched a criminal investigation into Vladimir Antyufeev who is suspected of misuse of state powers."
  • Moscow OMON, and units brought from other cities, clashed with anti-Yeltsindemonstrators during the1993 Russian constitutional crisisand reportedly beat some members of theSupreme Soviet of Russia(Russian parliament at the time).[20]
OMON cracking down on a protest action in defense of Article 31 (freedom of assembly) of theRussian Constitutionin Moscow in 2010
  • OMON have broken up several opposition rallies, including theDissenters' Marchessince 2006, sparking reports ofpolice brutality,including excessive use of force and arbitrarydetentionof participants.[21]In 2007, the brutal actions of OMON against peaceful protesters and arrests of opposition figures were harshly criticised by theEuropean Unioninstitutions and governments.[22]Moscow OMON also made international news when it preventedgay rights activists(including theEuropean Parliamentmembers) from marching after the Mayor of MoscowYury Luzhkovdid not allow a planned parade to take place in 2007.[23]
  • On 24 March 2006, Belarusian OMON stormed the opposition's tent camp atMinsk'sOctober Squarewithout provocation, violently ending the peacefulJeans Revolutionagainst the regime ofAlexander Lukashenko.Thousands of people were beaten and hundreds detained, including the opposition's presidential candidateAlaksandr Kazulin,as a result of the attack.[24]
  • In February 2008, Tajik OMON commanderOleg Zakharchenkowas killed in a shootout with an anti-organized crime police unit composed of former opposition fighters, under disputed circumstances, inGharm.[25]In 2009, the formerInterior Minister of Tajikistan,Mahmadnazar Salihov,allegedly committed suicide to avoid being arrested in connection with the case; Salihov's family claimed he was murdered in a political purge.[26]
  • South Ossetian separatist OMON took part in the fighting against theGeorgian Armed Forcesin August, during the2008 South Ossetia warand were accused of "special cruelty" against civilians in the overrun ethnic Georgian villages.[27]Subsequently, South Ossetian OMON fighters were absorbed into Russian regular forces in the area as contract soldiers and continued to be deployed in the highly disputedAkhalgorizone.[28]
  • Gulmurod Khalimov,the Russian-U.S. trained[29]OMON chief in Tajikistan since 2012, disappeared in 2015.[30]He had defected to theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant(ISIL) in Syria, and threatened to attack American cities.[31]He was declared wanted for treason by Tajik government.[32]

Conflict in Chechnya

[edit]

The force was active in theFirst Chechen Warof 1994–1996 in which OMON was often used in various security andlight infantryroles, notably for the notorious "cleansing" (zachistka) operations.[33]Prior to the war, there was also an OMON formation belonging to the Interior Ministry (MVD) of theChechen Republic of Ichkeria,Chechnya's separatist government. The independent Chechnya had an OMON battalion prior to the war, but it was not battle trained,[34]and did not play any significant role as an organized force before disintegrating. During the armed conflict, almost every Russian city would be regularly sendingmilitsiyagroups, often OMON members, for tours of usually three or four months. The pro-Moscow administration of the Chechen Republic also formed its own OMON detachments. In February 1996, a group of thirty-seven Russian OMON officers fromNovosibirsksurrendered to Chechen militants ofSalman RaduyevandKhunkar-Pasha Israpilovduring theKizlyar-Pervomayskoye hostage crisis.[35]

OMON took part in theSecond Chechen Waras well. OMON forces sustained severe losses in the conflict, including fromthe March 2000 ambushwhich killed scores of servicemen fromBereznikiandPerm(including nine captured and executed),[36]theJuly 2000 suicide bombingwhich killed at least twenty-five Russians atArgunbase of OMON fromChelyabinsk,[37]andthe April 2002 mine attackwhich left twenty-one Chechen OMON troops dead in central Grozny.[38]Control and discipline continued to be questionable in Chechnya, where OMON members were known to have engaged in, or fallen victim to, several deadly incidents offriendly fireandfratricide.Inperhaps the bloodiest of such incidents,at least twenty-four were killed when OMON fromPodolskattacked a column of OMON fromSergiyev Posadin Grozny on 2 March 2000.[39]Among other incidents, several Chechen OMON servicemen were abducted and executed in Grozny by Russian military servicemen in November 2000,[40]members of Chechen OMON engaged ina shootoutwith the Ingush police on the border between Chechnya andIngushetiaresulting in eight fatalities in September 2006,[41]andRamzan Kadyrov-controlled local OMON clashed with a group of rival Chechens belonging to the Kakiyev'sSpetsnaz GRUmilitary unit in Grozny, resulting in at least five being killed in 2007.[citation needed]

OMON was often accused of severehuman rights abusesduring the course of the conflict,[42]including abducting, torturing, raping and killing civilians. By 2000, the bulk of such crimes, as recorded by international organisations in Chechnya, appeared to have been committed either by or with the participation of OMON.[43]Moscow region OMON took part in theApril 1995 rampagein the village ofSamashki,where up to 300 civilians were reportedly killed during a large-scale brutalcleansingoperation by federal MVD forces.[44]In December 1999, a group of unidentified OMON members manning a roadblock checkpointshot deadaround forty refugees fleeing the siege of Grozny.[45]OMON fromSaint Petersburg[46]are believed to have been behind the February 2000Novye Aldi massacrein which at least sixty civilians were robbed and then killed by Russian forces entering Grozny after the fall of the city;[47]one officer,Sergei Babin,was to be prosecuted in relation to the case in 2005 but he vanished.[48][49]In April 2006, theEuropean Court of Human Rightsfound Russia guilty of theforced disappearanceofShakhid Baysayev,a Chechen man who had gone missing after being detained in a March 2000 security sweep by Russian OMON in Grozny.[50]In 2007,Khanty–Mansi Autonomous OkrugOMON officerSergei Lapinwas sentenced for the kidnapping and torture of a Chechen man in Grozny in 2001,[51]with the Grozny court criticising the conduct of OMON serving in Chechnya in broader terms.[52]In an event related to the conflict in Chechnya, several OMON officers were also accused of starting the May 2007 wave of ethnic violence inStavropolby assisting in the racially motivated murder of a local Chechen man.[53]

Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit]
Main article:Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses § Russia

In 2021 OMON officers tortured Jehovah's Witnesses inIrkutskin an attempt to make them inform about other members.[54]

Russo-Ukrainian War

[edit]

Some OMON units participated in the2022 Russian invasion of Ukrainewhere they were intended to disperse riots and controlcivil unrestafterKyivwould be captured. The failure to capture Kyiv resulted in some SOBR missions becoming redundant, they also ended up engaging in military combat and some of its personnel being killed in action or captured by theUkrainian Armed Forces.[55]

A group of OMON officers are suing for unlawful dismissal after being sacked for refusing to fight in Ukraine.[56]On 28 September 2022, theProsecutor General of UkraineandNational Police of UkrainepublishedCCTVfootage showing OMON and Rosgvardiya personnel shooting at civilians during thebattle of Hostomel.[57][58][59]

Russia

[edit]

In Russia, there is an OMON unit in everyoblast,as well as in many major cities. Since 2016, the OMON units report directly to theNational Guard Forces Commandas part of its regional district commands, and they are expected to be deployed in support of the police forces of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Information from different sources suggested that there were between 10,500 and 15,000 OMON members stationed at population centers andtransportation hubsaround the country during the 1990s.[citation needed]The number officially rose to about 20,000 nationwide by 2007; the biggest OMON unit in Russia, Moscow OMON, numbers over 2,000 members. Most OMON officers retire at the age of approximately forty-five.[citation needed]They were also sometimes not paid for their service. In 2001, for example, some fifty OMON members from Moscow filed a lawsuit claiming they had not been paid for one month of combat operations in Chechnya.[60]The use of OMON members in high-risk situations, especially in Chechnya and elsewhere in theNorth Caucasus,often causes the group to lose members in combat.[citation needed]

Moscow Zubr

[edit]
FormerRussian President,Medvedev,andInterior Minister,Rashid Nurgaliyev,inspects Zubr in 2011
OMON ZubrGAZ Tiger SPM-2.

TheZubr Special Purpose Police Detachment(Russian:Отряд Милиции Особого Назначения "Зубр";is Russian for Bison, particularly theEuropean bison) of theMinistry of Internal Affairs of Russiawas created in February 2006 on the basis of the OMON GUVD in theMoscow Regionthat existed since 1988.[61]It is based inShchelkovo-7near Moscow. Zubr was made up of officers drawn from the OMON riot police near Moscow and numbered about 430 people. Zubr is equipped with armored personnel carriers,Tigrsand other special equipment, and includes snipers and dog handlers.[62][63]

Equipment

[edit]

List of equipment of the National Guard of Russia

OMON groups use a wide range of firearms, includingAK-74assault rifle,AKS-74Ucarbine assault rifle,9A-91compact assault rifle, andPP-19 Bizonsubmachine gun, and theMakarov pistol,Stechkin automatic pistoland theMP-443 GrachorGSh-18are assigned as sidearms. OMON units may use other weaponry, typically used by Russian light infantry during special operations and in war zones, such as: thePK machine gun,theGP-25underbarrel grenade launcher for assault rifle or theGM-94 pump-action grenade launcher,RPGseries rocket-proppelled grenade launchers, and theDragunovandVintorezdesignated marksman rifles.The kind of issued protective gear is shared with regular National Guard units. The Bagariy body armor is a common sight replacing the older Kora-Kulon while the ZSH 1–2 is the main issued helmet with the older Kolpak being used only on riot duty. They are sometimes called "OMON soldiers".[64]

Moscow OMON "Lavina-Uragan" (Avalanche-Hurricane) riot control vehicle.

Asriot police,OMON often uses special equipment termedriot gearto help protect themselves and attack others. Riot gear typically includespersonal armor,batons,riotandtactical shields,andriot helmets.OMON also deploys specializedless-than-lethalweapons, such aswater cannon,pepper spray,tear gas,sponge grenades,pistols,rifles, and shotguns which firerubber bullets,bean bag rounds,stun grenades,andLong Range Acoustic Devices.[citation needed]

Transport

[edit]

OMON vehicles include specially-equipped vans, buses and trucks of various types (often armored and sometimes equipped with mounted machine guns), as well as a limited number of armored personnel carriers such asGAZ Tigr,BTR-60,BTR-70andBTR-80.

Uniforms

[edit]
Members during the Gulonov March
Members of theSt. PetersburgOMON

OMON's headgear remains their signature blackberet(they are thus sometimes calledBlack Berets), which they share with theNaval Infantry.

OMON, as part of the RosGvard, is transitioning to the Russian version of the ATACS LE (blue/grey) but units are still seen wearing the traditional Noch-91 uniform in all-black, and blue or grayTigerstripecamouflage,[66]a not uncommon sight has been a variety of Russian Army andRussian Internal Troopsuniforms,[66]often with (black)balaclavamasks and/or helmets.

Rest of former Soviet Union

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Russian:ОМОН – отряд мобильный особого назначения,romanized:OMON - otryad mobilnyy osobogo naznacheniya,lit. 'Special Purposes Mobile Unit (SPMU)',pronounced[ɐˈtrʲætməˈbʲilʲnɨjɐˈsobɐvənɐznəˈt͡ɕʲɛnɪjə],previouslyRussian:отряд милиции особого назначения,romanized:otryad militsii osobogo naznacheniya,lit. 'Special Purposes Unit of the Militia'
  2. ^ Sliwa, Zdzislaw (2018).The Russian National Guard: A Warning or a Message?(PDF).Centre for Security and Strategic Research. p. 20.Retrieved12 May2019.
  3. ^ МВД России– "Сегодня от работы МВД зависят многие аспекты повседневной жизни граждан. Органы внутренних дел занимаются обеспечением порядка на улицах, предотвращением и раскрытием преступлений, защитой и охраной частной собственности, государственных и коммерческих объектов. Подразделения МВД борются за безопасность на дорогах страны, обеспечивают проведение массовых мероприятий, днем и ночью приходят на помощь гражданам в чрезвычайных ситуациях. От министра до участкового Министерство внутренних дел – на страже интересов гражданина, закона и общества."
  4. ^abАгалаков, Александр (8 February 2012)."Отряды ОМОНа создал адмирал Колчак".nsk.aif.ru.Retrieved30 September2020.
  5. ^"Милиция адмирала Колчака | Back in the USSR".maxpark.com.Retrieved30 September2020.
  6. ^"Милиция другого цвета | Библиотека сибирского краеведения".bsk.nios.ru.Retrieved30 September2020.
  7. ^Министерство Внутренних ДелРоссийской Федерации."MVD website, history".Mvd.ru. Archived fromthe originalon 5 December 2013.Retrieved23 February2014.
  8. ^Moscow News, 22 August 2011:Retooling Russia's Riot Police
  9. ^"Police spetsnaz reforms 2011".Agentura.ru.Retrieved23 November2013.
  10. ^BBC News,27 March 2007:Timeline: Latvia
  11. ^Pasienio apsaugos tarnyba // Fight for Independence 1990–1991(English)
  12. ^Novaya Gazeta,29.11.2008:The unmasked faceArchived16 July 2011 at theWayback Machine
  13. ^abHuman Rights Watch World Report 1992: Events of 1991.Human Rights Watch. 1991. p.532.ISBN9781564320537.Retrieved23 February2014– viaInternet Archive.
  14. ^From Promise to Practice.Lynne Rienner Publishers. 2003. p.276.Retrieved23 February2014– viaInternet Archive.
  15. ^Denber, Rachel (8 June 1993).Human Rights in Tajikistan: In the Wake of Civil War – Rachel Denber, Barnett R. Rubin, Jeri Laber.Human Rights Watch.ISBN9781564321190.Retrieved23 February2014.
  16. ^Huntington, Samuel P. (31 May 2007).The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order – Samuel P. Huntington.Simon and Schuster.ISBN9781416561248.Retrieved24 February2014.
  17. ^Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval – Karen Dawisha.Cambridge University Press. 28 January 1994. p.183.Retrieved3 March2014– viaInternet Archive.
  18. ^Galeotti, Mark (2004)."The Transdnistrian Connection: Big Problems from a Small Pseudo-state".Global Crime(in Polish).6(3–4). Academia.edu: 398–405.doi:10.1080/17440570500277359.S2CID146405023.Retrieved3 March2014.
  19. ^Wines, Michael (5 March 2002)."Trans-Dniester 'Nation' Resents Shady Reputation – New York Times".The New York Times.Moldova; Trans-Dnestr (Moldova).Retrieved3 March2014.
  20. ^Memorial,April 1994:HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS UNDER THE STATE OF EMERGENCY IN MOSCOW DURING THE PERIOD FROM NOON, OCTOBER 4 TO OCTOBER 18, 1993Archived14 August 2007 at theWayback Machine
  21. ^Amnesty International,16 April 2007:Russian Federation: Attack on public dissentArchived15 November 2007 at theWayback Machine
  22. ^(in Polish)Polska Agencja Prasowa,26 November 2007:Milicja biła opozycję, Europa oburzonaArchived14 December 2007 at theWayback Machine(Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat)
  23. ^The Associated Press,27 May 2007:Russian Police Detain Gay Activists(The Washington Post)
  24. ^TIME,25 March 2006:Belarus: 'They Knocked My Husband Down and Dragged Him Away'
  25. ^IWPR Central Asia – Central Asia."Murder Invokes Ghosts of Tajikistan's Past – Institute for War and Peace Reporting – P220".Iwpr.net. Archived fromthe originalon 28 February 2014.Retrieved24 February2014.
    "Tajikistan: The opposition braces itself for clashes with the regular army – Ferghana Information agency, Moscow".Enews.fergananews.com. 4 February 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 25 June 2013.Retrieved24 February2014.
  26. ^"Tajikistan: Former Interior Minister Commits Suicide to Preempt Arrest, Officials Insist".EurasiaNet.org. 17 June 2009.Retrieved24 February2014.
  27. ^The Georgian Times,15 September 2008:"Resistance does not make any sense: they will kill us on the spot"Archived6 September 2008 at theWayback Machine
  28. ^Imedi TV,16 October 2008:Ossetian militiamen join Russian regular army(trans.BBC Monitoring)
  29. ^"U.S. Trained Tajik IS Recruit".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.31 May 2015.Retrieved25 September2016.
  30. ^"Mystery of Missing Tajik OMON Commander Deepens".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.20 May 2015.Retrieved25 September2016.
  31. ^"The U.S.-trained commander of Tajikistan's special forces has joined the Islamic State".The Washington Post.Retrieved25 September2016.
  32. ^"Tajik Police Officer Wanted For Treason".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.3 June 2015.Retrieved25 September2016.
  33. ^Human Rights Watch,February 1995:Russia: Three Months of War in Chechnya
  34. ^"Dalkhan Khozhaev"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 March 2008.Retrieved23 February2014.
  35. ^The Independent,20 January 1996:Fog of battle clouds Pervomayskoye's ugly truth
  36. ^The Sunday Times(UK), 9 April 2000:Chechens wipe out Russia's top troops(Center for Defense Information)
  37. ^People's Daily,3 July 2000:Chechen Truck Bomb Kills at Least 25 Russians
  38. ^The St. Petersburg Times,19 April 2002:Mine Leaves 21 OMON Troops DeadArchived30 September 2007 at theWayback Machine
  39. ^The Independent,15 January 2002:Russia invented ambush by Chechens to hide friendly-fire massacre
  40. ^European Court of Human Rights,2007-11-15:CASE OF KUKAYEV v. RUSSIA
  41. ^The Moscow Times,14 September 2006:7 Dead in Police-OMON Battle
  42. ^The Washington Post,2 June 2000:Civilian Massacre Fits Pattern Of Earlier Human Rights Abuse
  43. ^Institute for War and Peace Reporting,5 April 2000:Chechens Rub Salt in Old Wounds
  44. ^Memorial,1996:By All Available Means: The Russian Federation Ministry of Internal Affairs Operation in the village of Samashki: 7–8 April 1995Archived13 August 2007 at theWayback Machine
  45. ^The Independent,6 December 1999:Rebels inflict heavy losses as Russian forces close on Grozny
  46. ^Institute for War and Peace Reporting,9 August 2007:Chechen Massacre Survivors See Justice
  47. ^Human Rights Watch,June 2000:FEBRUARY 5: A DAY OF SLAUGHTER IN NOVYE ALDI
  48. ^Los Angeles Times,3 July 2005:An Unlikely Antiwar Hero for Russians
  49. ^"Prague Watchdog – Crisis in Chechnya – ECHR on Russian war crimes: responses from Moscow and Grozny".www.watchdog.cz.Retrieved24 August2020.
  50. ^Prima,11 April 2005:European Court of Human Rights finds Russia guilty in disappearance of man in ChechnyaArchived29 September 2007 at theWayback Machine
  51. ^The St. Petersburg Times,1 April 2005:Chechen Court Sends OMON Officer to JailArchived14 February 2009 at theWayback Machine
  52. ^Amnesty International,31 March 2005:Russian Federation: Russian police officer found guilty of crimes against the civilian population in the Chechen RepublicArchived5 September 2008 at theWayback Machine
  53. ^Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty,7 June 2007:Russia: Ethnic Tensions Mounting In Restive Stavropol
  54. ^Service, Forum 18 News."RUSSIA:" Unjustified, unmotivated cruelty against peaceful, unresisting believers "".www.forum18.org.Retrieved2 March2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  55. ^Schreck, Carl (6 March 2022)."'Sent As Cannon Fodder': Locals Confront Russian Governor Over 'Deceived' Soldiers In Ukraine ".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.Retrieved21 April2022.
  56. ^"Russian riot police sue after being sacked for refusing to fight".27 March 2022.Retrieved28 March2022.
  57. ^"Ukraine charges Russian soldiers alleged to have shot at civilian cars".TheGuardian.com.28 September 2022.
  58. ^"Five russian servicemen were notified of suspicion of shooting cars with civilians in Hostomel".YouTube.
  59. ^"11 вбитих та 15 поранених на Київщині: оголошено підозру військовим рф, які розстрілювали людей".YouTube.
  60. ^Gazeta.ru,27 June 2003:Moscow policemen want Chechen money
  61. ^"Что такое отряд" Зубр "".Коммерсантъ.22 December 2008 – via Kommersant.
  62. ^"Медведев посетил базу" Зубра ", бойцы которого жестко разгоняли демонстрантов во Владивостоке".NEWSru.com.21 March 2011.
  63. ^"Новые разоблачения от The New Times: на даче у замглавы МВД РФ работали захваченные рабы-гастарбайтеры".NEWSru.com.22 February 2010.
  64. ^Google:"OMON soldiers" search results
  65. ^This vehicle is colloquially known as "avtozak" (Russian автозак, short from (наряд) автомобильного заключения - "mobile detention (unit)" )
  66. ^ab"Suit" Night 91M "".
  67. ^"BPDS" Fulger "– de 27 de ani la straja securității naționale | Ministerul Afacerilor Interne".mai.gov.md.Retrieved19 May2020.
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