Jewish eschatology

Jewish eschatologyis the area ofJewish theologyconcerned with events that will happen in theend of daysand related concepts. This includes the ingathering of the exileddiaspora,the coming of theJewish Messiah,theafterlife,and theresurrection of the dead.InJudaism,the end times are usually called the "end of days" (aḥarit ha-yamim,אחרית הימים), a phrase that appears several times in theTanakh.

These beliefs have evolved over time, and according to some authors there is evidence of Jewish belief in a personal afterlife with reward or punishment referenced in theTorah.

Sources

InJudaism,the main textual source for the belief in the end of days and accompanying events is the Tanakh orHebrew Bible.The roots of Jewish eschatology are to be found in the pre-exileprophets,includingIsaiahandJeremiah,and the exilic prophetsEzekielandDeutero-Isaiah.The main tenets of Jewish eschatology are the following, in no particular order, elaborated in theBook of Isaiah,theBook of Jeremiahand theBook of Ezekiel.

The End of Days

War of Gog and Magog

Main article:Gog and Magog

According toEzekielchapter 38, the "war of Gog and Magog" is a climactic war that will happen at the end of the Jewish exile. According to biblical commentator and rabbiDavid Kimhi,this war will take place inJerusalem.

Events to occur

• God redeems the Jewish people from their captivity that began with theBabylonian Exile,in a newExodus(Kibbutz Galuyot)
• God returns the Jewish people to theLand of Israel
• God restores the kinglyHouse of Davidand theTemple in Jerusalem
• God appoints aregentfrom the House of David (i.e. theMessiah) to lead the Jewish people and the world, and usher in theMessianic Age,characterised by justice, righteousness, and peace
• Allnationsrecognize that theGod of Israel is the only true Godand gather to themount Zion
• Godresurrects the deadand judges all people (and sends some for a year to Gehinnom)
• God creates anew heaven and a new earth

Biblical Sheol

Main article:Sheol

TheHebrew Biblereflects the belief of theIsraelitesin an arguablyHades-like afterworld, where both the righteous (seeSamuel) and the sinners continue their existence in a miserable manner.

World to come

See also:World to come

Theafterlifeis known asolam ha-ba(literally “coming world" or "next world", עולם הבא inHebrew),and is related to concepts ofGan Eden,the Heavenly "Garden in Eden",orParadise,andGehinnom.The phrase “olam ha-ba”itself does not occur in theHebrew Bible.The acceptedhalakhais that it is impossible for living human beings to know what the world to come is like.

Second Temple period

In the lateSecond Temple period,beliefs about the ultimate fate of an individual were diverse. ThePhariseesandEssenesbelieved in theimmortality of the soul,but theSadduceesdid not.TheDead Sea Scrolls,JewishpseudepigraphaandJewish magical papyriall reflect this variety of opinions.

Medieval rabbinical views

While all classical rabbinic sources discuss the afterlife,Medieval scholarsdispute the nature of existence in the "End of Days" after the Messianic Age. WhileMaimonidesdescribes an entirely spiritual existence for souls, which he calls "disembodied intellects,”Nachmanidesdiscusses an intensely spiritual existence on Earth, where spirituality and physicality are merged. Both agree that life after death is as Maimonides describes the "End of Days." This existence entails an extremely heightened understanding of and connection to theDivine Presence.This view is shared by all classical rabbinic scholars.

According to Maimonides, anynon-Jewwho lives according to theSeven Laws of Noahis regarded as arighteous gentile,and is assured of a place in the world to come, the final reward of the righteous.

There is a great deal of surviving rabbinic material concerning the fate of thesoulafter death, its experiences, and where it goes. At various points in the afterlife journey, the soul may encounter:Hibbut ha-kever,the pains and experiences of the physico-spiritual dissolution or reconfiguration within the grave;Dumah,theangelin charge of funerary matters;Satanas theangel of deathor other equally grim figure; theKaf ha-Kela,the ensnarement or confinement of the stripped-down soul within various ghostly material reallocations (devised for the purpose of cleansing a soul of contamination but not severe enough to warrant Gehinnom, see Tanya Chapter 8));Gehinnom(purepurgatory); andGan Eden(heavenlyrespite orparadise,a purified state). All classical rabbinic scholars agree that these concepts are beyond typical human understanding, so these ideas are expressed throughout rabbinic literature viaparablesand analogies.

Gehinnomis fairly well defined inrabbinic literature.It is sometimes translated as "hell", but is more similar to theNicene Christianview ofPurgatorythan to itsHell.Rabbinic thought maintains that souls are not tortured in Gehinnom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be eleven months, with the exception ofhereticsand extremely sinful Jews.This is why Jews mourning for near relatives will not recitemourner's kaddishfor more than eleven months after a death.Gehinnomis considered a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent toGan Eden( "Garden of Eden" ).

Rabbinic legends

Rabbinic literatureincludes many legends about the World to Come and the two Gardens of Eden. As compiled byLouis Ginzbergin the bookLegends of the Jewsthese include the world to come, which is called Paradise, and said to have a double gate made ofcarbuncleguarded by 600,000 shining angels.Seven clouds of glory overshadow Paradise, and under them, in the center of Paradise, stands thetree of life.The tree of life overshadows Paradise too, and it has fifteen thousand different tastes and aromas that winds blow all across Paradise.Under the tree of life are many pairs of canopies, one of stars and the other of sun and moon, while a cloud of glory separates the two. In each pair of canopies sits a rabbinic scholar who explains the Torah to one.When one enters Paradise, one is proffered byMichaelthearchangelto God on the altar of the Temple in the heavenly Jerusalem.One is transfigured into an angel, with the ugliest person becoming as beautiful and shining as "the grains of a silverpomegranateupon which fall the rays of the sun”.The angels that guard Paradise's gate adorn the soul in seven clouds of glory, crown it with gems and pearls and gold, place eightmyrtlesin the hand, and praise it for being righteous while leading it to a garden of eight hundred roses and myrtles watered by many rivers.In the garden is one's canopy, its beauty according to one's merit, but each canopy has four rivers – milk, honey, wine, andbalsam– flowing out from it, and has a golden vine and thirty shining pearls hanging from it.Under each canopy is a table of gems and pearls attended to by sixty angels.The light of Paradise is the light of the righteous people therein.Each day in Paradise one wakes up a child and goes to bed an elder to enjoy the pleasures of childhood, youth, adulthood, and old age.In each corner of Paradise is a forest of 800,000 trees, the least among these greater than the best herbs and spices,attended to by 800,000 sweetly singing angels.Paradise is divided into seven sub-paradises, each one 120,000 miles long and wide.Depending on one's merit, a soul is assigned to one of these sections of Paradise: the first is made of glass and cedar and is forconverts to Judaism;the second is of silver and cedar and is for penitents; the third is of silver, gold, gems and pearls, and is for thePatriarchs,MosesandAaron,the Israelites that left Egypt and lived in the wilderness, and the kings of Israel; the fourth is of rubies and olive wood and is for the holy and steadfast in faith; the fifth is like the third, except a river flows through it and its bed was woven byEveand the angels, and it is for the Messiah andElijah;and the sixth and seventh divisions are not described, except that they are respectively for those who died doing pious acts and those who died from illness in expiation for Israel's sins.

Above this Paradise is the higher Gan Eden, where God isenthronedand explains the Torah to its inhabitants.The higher Gan Eden contains 310 worlds and is divided into seven compartments.The compartments are not described, though it is implied that each compartment is greater than the previous one and is made open to a soul based on its merit.The first compartment is forJewish martyrs,the second for those who drowned, the third for "RabbanYohanan ben Zakkaiand his disciples, "the fourth for those whom the cloud of glory carried off, the fifth for penitents, the sixth for youths who have never sinned; and the seventh for the poor who lived decently and studied Torah.

Resurrection of the dead

Resurrection of the dead, fresco from theDura-Europossynagogue

Main article:Resurrection of the dead § Rabbinic and Samaritan Judaism

An early explicit mention of resurrection in Hebrew texts is theVision of the Valley of Dry Bonesin theBook of Ezekieldated somewhere around 539 BCE. Alan Segal argues that this narrative was intended as a metaphor for national rebirth, promising the Jews return to Israel and reconstruction of theTemple,not as a description of personal resurrection.

TheBook of Danielpromised literal resurrection to the Jews, in concrete detail. Alan Segal interprets Daniel as writing that with the coming of theArchangel Michael,misery would beset the world, and only those whose names were in a divine book would be resurrected.Moreover, Daniel's promise of resurrection was intended only for the most righteous and the most sinful because the afterlife was a place for the virtuous individuals to be rewarded and the sinful individuals to receive eternal punishment.

GreekandPersianculture influenced Jewish sects to believe in an afterlife between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE as well.

TheHebrew Bible,at least as seen through interpretation ofBavli Sanhedrin,contains frequent reference toresurrection of the dead.TheMishnah(c. 200) lists belief in theresurrection of the deadas one of three essential beliefs necessary for a Jew to participate in it:

All Israel have a portion in the world to come, for it is written: 'Thy people are all righteous; they shall inherit the land forever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I may be glorified.' But the following have no portion therein: one who maintains that resurrection is not a biblical doctrine, the Torah was not divinely revealed, and anApikoros('heretic').

In the lateSecond Temple period,thePhariseesbelieved inresurrection,while Essenes andSadduceesdid not.During theRabbinic period,beginning in the late first century and carrying on to the present, the works of Daniel were included into the Hebrew Bible, signaling the adoption of Jewish resurrection into the officially sacred texts.

Jewish liturgy,most notably theAmidah,contains references to the tenet of the bodily resurrection of the dead.In contemporary Judaism, both Orthodox Judaism andConservative Judaismmaintain the traditional references to it in their liturgy.However, many Conservative Jews interpret the tenet metaphorically rather than literally.Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have altered traditional references to the resurrection of the dead in the liturgy ( "who gives life to the dead" ) to refer to "who gives life to all."

The last judgment

In Judaism, the day of judgment happens every year onRosh Hashanah;therefore, the belief in a last day of judgment for all mankind is disputed. Some rabbis hold that there will be such a day following the resurrection of the dead. Others hold that there is no need for that because of Rosh Hashanah. Yet others hold that this accounting and judgment happens when one dies. Other rabbis hold that the last judgment only applies to thegentilenations and not the Jewish people.

In contemporary Judaism

Irving Greenberg

Irving Greenberg,representing anOpen Orthodoxviewpoint, describes the afterlife as a central Jewish teaching, deriving from the belief in reward and punishment. According to Greenberg, sufferingMedievalJews emphasized the World to Come as a counterpoint to the difficulties of this life, while early Jewish modernizers portrayed Judaism as interested only in this world as a counterpoint to "otherworldly" Christianity. Greenberg sees each of these views as leading to an undesired extreme – overemphasizing the afterlife leads to asceticism, while devaluing the afterlife deprives Jews of the consolation of eternal life and justice – and calls for a synthesis, in which Jews can work to perfect this world, while also recognizing the immortality of the soul.

Conservative Judaism both affirms belief in the world beyond (as referenced in theAmidahand Maimonides'thirteen principles of faith) while recognizing that human understanding is limited and we cannot know exactly what the world beyond consists of. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism affirm belief in the afterlife, though they downplay the theological implications in favor of emphasizing the importance of the "here and now," as opposed to reward and punishment. TheUnion for Reform Judaismbelieves the righteous of any faith have a place in heaven but does not believe in a concept of hell.

Jewish messianism

Main article:Messiah in Judaism

The Hebrew wordmashiach(ormoshiach) refers to the Jewish idea of the messiah. In biblical times the titlemashiachwas awarded to someone in a high position of nobility and greatness. For example,Cohen ha-MašíaḥmeansHigh Priest.While the name of the Jewish Messiah is considered to be one of the things that precede creation,he is not considered divine, in contrast to Christianity whereJesusis both divine and the Messiah.

In the Talmudic era the titleMashiachor מלך המשיח,Méleḵ ha-Mašíaḥliterally means "the anointed King". The Messiah is to be a human leader, physically descended from theDavidic line,who will rule and unite the peopleof Israeland will usher in theMessianic Ageof global and universal peace.

Early Second Temple period (516 BCE – c.220 BCE)

Main article:Second Temple period

Early in the Second Temple period hopes for a better future are described in the Jewish scriptures.After the return from the Babylonian exile,Cyrus the Greatwas called "messiah"in Isaiah, due to his role in the return of the Jews exiles.

Later Second Temple period (c.220 BCE – 70 CE)

Further information:Apocalypticism § Judaism

A number ofmessianicideas developed during the later Second Temple Period, ranging from this-worldy, political expectations, to apocalyptic expectations of an endtime in which the dead would be resurrected and the Kingdom of Heaven would be established on earth.The Messiah might be a kingly "son of David"or a more heavenly"son of man",but" Messianism became increasingly eschatological, and eschatology was decisively influenced by apocalypticism, "while messianic expectations became increasingly focused on the figure of an individual savior.According toZwi Werblowsky,"the Messiah no longer symbolized the coming of the new age, but he was somehow supposed to bring it about. The" Lord's anointed "thus became the" savior and redeemer "and the focus of more intense expectations and doctrines."Messianic ideas developed both by new interpretations (pesher,midrash) of the Jewish scriptures, but also by visionary revelations.

Talmud

A full set of the Babylonian Talmud

TheBabylonian Talmud(200–500 CE), tractateSanhedrin,contains a long discussion of the events leading to the coming of the Messiah.Throughout their history Jews have compared these passages (and others) to contemporary events in search of signs of the Messiah's imminent arrival, continuing into present times.

The Talmud tells many stories about the Messiah, some of which represent famous Talmudic rabbis as receiving personal visitations fromElijah the Prophetand the Messiah.

Rabbinic commentaries

Monument toMaimonidesinCórdoba

Inrabbinic literature,the rabbis elaborated and explained the prophecies that were found in the Hebrew Bible along with theoral lawand rabbinic traditions about its meaning.

Maimonides' commentary to tractateSanhedrinstresses a relatively naturalistic interpretation of the Messiah, de-emphasizing miraculous elements. His commentary became widely (although not universally) accepted in the non- or less-mystical branches ofOrthodox Judaism.

Contemporary views

Orthodox Judaism

The belief in a human Messiah of theDavidic lineis a universal tenet of faith among Orthodox Jews and one ofMaimonides' thirteenprinciples of faith.

Some authorities in Orthodox Judaism believe that this era will lead to supernatural events culminating in a bodily resurrection of the dead. Maimonides, on the other hand, holds that the events of the Messianic Era are not specifically connected with the resurrection.

Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaismvaries in its teachings. While it retains traditional references to a personal redeemer and prayers for the restoration of theDavidic linein the liturgy, Conservative Jews are more inclined to accept the idea of a Messianic Era:

We do not know when the Messiah will come, nor whether he will be a charismatic human figure or is a symbol of the redemption of mankind from the evils of the world. Through the doctrine of a Messianic figure, Judaism teaches us that every individual human being must live as if he or she, individually, has the responsibility to bring about the messianic age. Beyond that, we echo the words of Maimonides based on the prophetHabakkuk(2:3) that though he may tarry, yet do we wait for him each day... (Emet ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism)

Reform Judaism

Reform Judaismgenerally concurs with the more liberal Conservative perspective of a future Messianic Era rather than a human Messiah.

See also

• Saoshyant

External links

• Jewish Encyclopedia: Eschatology
• The Origin of Jewish Eschatology,by Nathaniel Schmidt