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Prussia (region)

Coordinates:53°51′0.00″N20°49′0.01″E/ 53.8500000°N 20.8166694°E/53.8500000; 20.8166694
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53°51′0.00″N20°49′0.01″E/ 53.8500000°N 20.8166694°E/53.8500000; 20.8166694

For other uses, seePrussia (disambiguation).
Prussia
Historical region
Königsberg Cathedral
Olsztyn Old Town with Castle of Warmian Cathedral Chapter
Malbork Castle
Port of Klaipėda
Curonian Spit dunes
Map of the indigenous Baltic tribes that inhabited the region of Prussia prior to the Prussian Crusade, around 1200 AD
Map of the indigenous Baltic tribes that inhabited the region of Prussia prior to thePrussian Crusade,around 1200 AD
CountryPoland
Russia
Lithuania

Prussia(Polish:Prusyⓘ;Lithuanian:Prūsija;Russian:Пруссия​ⓘ;Old Prussian:Prūsa;German:Preußenⓘ;Latin:Pruthenia/Prussia/Borussia) is ahistorical regioninCentral Europeon the south-eastern coast of theBaltic Sea,that ranges from theVistuladelta in the west to the end of theCuronian Spitin the east and extends inland as far asMasuria,divided betweenPoland,RussiaandLithuania.

Tacitus'sGermania(98 AD) is the oldest known record of an eyewitness account on the territory and its inhabitants.[1]Pliny the Elderhad already confirmed that the Romans had navigated into the waters beyond theCimbric peninsula(Jutland).Suiones,Sitones,Gothsand other Germanic people had temporarily settled to the east and west of theVistula Riverduring theMigration Period,adjacent to theAesti,who lived further to the east.[2][3]This region is often also referred to asOld Prussia.

Overview[edit]

History ofBrandenburgandPrussia
Present

The region's inhabitants of the Middle Ages were first calledBruziin the brief text of theBavarian Geographerand have since been referred to asOld Prussians,who, beginning in 997 AD, repeatedly defended themselves against conquest attempts by the newly created Duchy of thePolans.[4]The territories of the Old Prussians and the neighboringCuroniansandLivonianswere politically unified in the 1230s under theState of the Teutonic Order.The former kingdom and later state ofPrussia(1701–1947) derived its name from the region.

TheTeutonic Knightsinvaded and annexedthe region ofPomereliafrom Poland intotheir monastic state,which already included historical Prussia, located east of the region. After the acquisition ofPomereliain 1308–1310, the meaning of the termPrussiawas widened in the German terminology to include areas west of theVistula,including Vistula/Eastern Pomerania, although it was never inhabited byBalticPrussiansbut by the Slavic Poles. After the area was reintegrated with Poland in 1466 both names were in use:Pomeraniawas used when referring to thePomeranian Voivodeship(Gdańsk Pomerania) and theChełmno Voivodeship,while Royal Prussia was used as the name of the wider province, which, however, also included theMalbork Voivodeshipand thePrince-Bishopric of Warmia,covering the Prussianhistorical areasofPomesania,PogesaniaandWarmia,the only actual Prussian territories of the province, while the rump Teutonic state, called theMonastic Prussiathereafter, formed a part ofPolandas a fief,[5]finally secularised in 1525 to become the LutheranDucal Prussia.

BrandenburgElectors obtained the separation of the Duchy of Prussia from Poland in 1660, taking advantage of theRusso-Swedish Deluge,and merged it with theElectorate of Brandenburgto formBrandenburg-Prussia,shortly thereafter becoming theKingdom of Prussia.Subsequently, it entered into an alliance with Austria and Russia, invading Polish territories of Royal Prussia, annexing and dividing it, with its bulk (includingPomereliaand theMalbork Landcomprising northern parts ofPomesaniaandPogesania) forming (along with the northern part ofGreater Polanddetached from theGrand Duchy of Posen) the Province ofWest Prussia,whileWarmiawas assigned toEast Prussia,with both West and East Prussia remaining outside theGerman Confederation.In contrast, theLauenburg and Bütow Landwas annexed in 1777 immediately into theProvince of Pomerania,but remained outside theHoly Roman Empireand was incorporated in 1815 only into its successor, theGerman Confederation,continuing to be a part of theDiocese of Chełmno.

The Province ofEast Prussia(the original Prussia) and the annexed Polish territories turned into theProvince of West Prussiawere merged in 1829 to form a singleProvince of Prussia,a part of the kingdom remaining outside ofGermany[a]until the creation of theNorth German Confederationin 1866 during theunification of Germany.[6]The merged territory was, however, again split into East and West Prussia in 1878.

East Prussia,West Prussia,theProvince of Posenand theStarostwo of Draheimwere annexed by Germany upon the formation ofNorth German Confederationin1866and became a target of aggressive Germanization, German settlement, anti-Catholic campaigns (Kulturkampf), as well asdisfranchisementand expropriations of Poles.

After theTreaty of Versailles,only the predominantly German-speaking western and eastern rim of the formerWest Prussiaremained a part of Germany, forming part of the rump province ofPosen-West Prussia(except for theLauenburg and Bütow Landremaining a part of theProvince of Pomerania,as well as theRegierungsbezirk Westpreussenwhich was made part ofEast Prussia), while its bulk was awarded to therecreated Polish state.

On the other hand, only minor part of East Prussia aroundDziałdowowas transferred to Poland, theKlaipėda Regionformed a free city supervised by theLeague of Nations,annexed following theKlaipėda RevoltbyLithuaniabut reclaimed byGermanyin 1939, while the bulk (including entire Warmia and most of Masuria) remained within theFree State of Prussia,a successor of theKingdom of Prussiaand a constituent part of the GermanWeimar Republic,following the1920 East Prussian plebiscite.[7]

Since its conquest by theSoviet Armywith evacuation and expulsion of the German-speaking inhabitants in 1945 in accordance with thePotsdam Agreement,the region of Prussia remains divided between northernPoland(most of theWarmian-Masurian Voivodeship,and the four counties ofPomeranian Voivodeshipeast ofVistula),Russia'sKaliningrad exclave,and southwesternLithuania(formerKlaipėda Region).[8][1]

History[edit]

Prehistory and early history[edit]

APrussian Hag–Old Prussianstatue, now inGdańsk,Poland

Indo-European settlers first arrived in the region during the 4th millennium BC, which in the Baltic would diversify into thesatemBalto-Slavicbranch which would ultimately give rise to theBaltsas the speakers of theBaltic languages.[8]The Balts would have become differentiated into Western and Eastern Balts in the late 1st millennium BC. The region was inhabited by ancestors ofWestern Balts–Old Prussians,Sudovians/Jotvingians,Scalvians,Nadruvians,andCuronianswhile the eastern Balts settled in what is now Lithuania, Latvia and Belarus.[8][9][10]

The Greek explorerPytheas(4th century BC) may have referred to the territory asMentenomonand to the inhabitants asGuttones(neighbours of theTeutones,probably referring to theGoths).[11][12]A river to the east of theVistulawas called theGuttalus,perhaps corresponding to theNemunas,theŁyna,or thePregola.In AD 98Tacitusdescribed one of the tribes living near the Baltic Sea (Latin:Mare Suebicum) asAestiorum gentesandamber-gatherers.[13]

TheVikingsstarted to penetrate the southeastern shores of theBaltic Seain the 7th and 8th centuries. The largest trade centres of the Prussians, such asTrusoandKaup,seem to have absorbed a number ofNorse people.Prussians used the Baltic Sea as a trading route, frequently travelling from Truso toBirka(in present-daySweden).[14]

At the end of theViking Age,the sons of Danish kingsHarald BluetoothandCnut the Greatlaunched several expeditions against the Prussians. They destroyed many areas in Prussia, including Truso and Kaup, but failed to dominate the population totally. A Viking (Varangian) presence in the area was "less than dominant and very much less than imperial."[15][1]

Further information:Truso

Old Prussians[edit]

Main article:Old Prussians
The Prussian tribes in the context of the Baltic tribes,c. 1200.Borders are approximations.

According to a legend, recorded bySimon Grunau,[citation needed]the namePrussiais derived from Pruteno (or Bruteno), the chief priest of Prussia and brother of the legendary kingWidewuto,who lived in the 6th century. The regions of Prussia and the corresponding tribes are said to bear the names of Widewuto's sons — for example,Sudoviais named after Widewuto's son Sudo.

The Old Prussians spoke a variety of languages, withOld Prussianbelonging to theWestern branch of the Baltic language group.Old Prussian, or related Western Baltic dialects, may have been spoken as far southeast asMasoviaand evenBelarusin the early medieval period, but these populations would probably have undergoneSlavicizationbefore the 10th century.[16]

The territory was identified asBrusin the 8th-century map of theBavarian GeographerandBruzze/Pruzze/Przzein theDagome iudex.Adam of Bremenmentions Prussians asPrusos/Pruzziin 1072.,[17]whileGallus AnonymousmentionsPrussiain hisGesta principum Polonorumin 1113. In the first half of the 13th century, BishopChristian of Prussiarecorded the history of a much earlier era. InNeo-Latinthe area is calledBorussiaand its inhabitantsBorussi.[18]

Medieval depiction of Prussians killingSaint Adalbert,the missionary bishop; part of theGniezno Doors,c. 1175

After theChristianisations of the West Slavsin the 10th century, the state of thePolanswas established and there were first attempts at conquering and baptizing the Baltic peoples.Bolesław I ChrobrysentAdalbert of Praguein 997 on a military and Christianizing mission. Adalbert, accompanied by armed guards, attempted to convert the Prussians to Christianity. He was killed by a Prussianpaganpriest in 997.[19] In 1015, Bolesław sent soldiers again, with some short-lived success, gaining regular paid tribute from some Prussians in the border regions, but it did not last. Polish rulers sent invasions to the territory in 1147, 1161–1166, and a number of times in the early 13th century. While these were repelled by the Prussians, theChełmno Landbecame exposed to their frequent raids.[20]

At that time,Pomereliabelonged to thediocese of Włocławek.Chełmno Land(includingMichałów Landand laterLubawaLand) belonged in turn to thediocese of Płock,since 1223 governed in the name of the Bishop of Płock byChristian of Oliva,a missionary bishop appointed for Prussia in 1216.[8]

Christianization and the Teutonic Knights[edit]

Main articles:Northern Crusades,Christian of Oliva,andState of the Teutonic Order

In the beginning of the 13th century,Konrad of Mazoviahad called forCrusadesand tried unsuccessfully to conquer Prussia for years. BishopChristian of Olivaestablished theOrder of Dobrzyńin order to defend Masovia against the raids of Old Prussians. However, the rather innumerous order (initially 15 knights, with 35 knights at its highest) did not prove effective in countering Prussians in battle. Christian achieved subjugation and conversion of Prussians only in theLubawaLand. Therefore, the pope set up further crusades.

The Duke finally invited theTeutonic Knightsin 1226, expelled by force of arms by KingAndrew II of Hungaryin the previous year following their attempts to build their own state within Transylvania.[21]The Knights were expected to fight the inhabitants of Prussia in exchange for afiefofChełmno Land.Prussia was conquered by theTeutonic Knightsduring thePrussian Crusadeand administered within theirState of the Teutonic Order,which begins the process ofGermanizationin the area.[20]Bishop Christian had to deal with the constant cut-back of his autonomy by the Knights and asked the Roman Curia for mediation. In 1243, the Papal legateWilliam of Modenadivided the Prussian lands of the Order's State into four dioceses, whereby the bishops retained the secular rule over about one third of the diocesan territory:

allsuffragan diocesesunder theArchbishopric of Riga.Christian was supposed to choose one of them, but did not agree to the division. He possibly retired to theCistercians Abbey in Sulejów,where he died before the conflict was solved.

The city ofKönigsberg(modernKaliningrad) was founded in 1255, and joined theHanseatic Leaguein 1340, thus connecting Prussia to the European trade network spanning via theNorth Seaand theBaltic Sea.[22]In 1492, a life of SaintDorothea of Montau,published in Marienburg (Malbork), became the first printed publication in Prussia.

"Prussian land was my father's land and I will claim its territory tillOsa river[pl]i.e. all the Prussian lands until theVistula River,includingPamede,because this is my inheritance "

—Vytautas the Great's statement in no uncertain terms in 1413, long after theBattle of Grunwald,during the negotiations with theTeutonic Knights.[23][24]Moreover, in 1421, the Lithuanian representatives emphasized the territorial and cultural links betweenLithuanians,Sudovia,and oldYotvingianlands, but the Order continued to enjoy the support of theHoly Roman Empire,and theWesternnobility (e.g. French, English).[23]

Efforts to expand the meaning of the designation[edit]

Main articles:Pomerelia,Gdansk Pomerania,Teutonic takeover of Danzig (Gdańsk),Royal Prussia,West Prussia,South Prussia,New East Prussia,Polish Corridor,Pomeranian Voivodship,Posen-West Prussia,Reichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen,andSouth East Prussia

TheTeutonic Knightssoon turned against their Polish benefactors in the same way, as they earlier did in Hungary.

The Polish region ofPomerelia(includingGdańsk Pomeraniaand the city ofGdańskas its parts) which was never inhabited by theOld Prussians,and which was calledPomorze('Pomerania') in Polish language since theEarly Middle Ages,was forcibly occupied by themonastic state of the Teutonic Knightsin 1308, following an invasion of Poland under the pretext of aiding the KingWładysław I Łokietekto quell a rebellion against him, incited by a conspiracy of theMargraviate of Brandenburgwith the localSwienca family.Teutonic atrocities against the Polish population followed, such as theSlaughter of Gdańsk.TheTeutonic Knightstook controlof the region from Poland, integrating it intotheir monastic state,which already included historical Prussia, located east of the region. After the acquisition ofPomereliain 1308–1310, the meaning of the termPrussiawas widened in the German terminology to include areas west of theVistula,including Vistula/Eastern Pomerania, although it was never inhabited byBalticPrussiansbut by the Slavic Poles. The possession of Danzig and Pomerelia by the Teutonic Order was questioned consistently by the Polish kings Władysław I andCasimir the Greatin legal suits in the papal court in 1320 and 1333.[25]Both times, as well as in 1339, the Teutonic Knights were ordered by the Pope to return Pomerelia and other lands back to Poland, but did not comply.[25]The conqueredDanzig(Gdańsk) joined theHanseatic Leaguein 1361. These events resulted in a series ofPolish–Teutonic Warsthroughout the 14th and 15th centuries. Under the Teutonic rule, an influx of western, mainly German-speaking farmers, traders and craftsmen was encouraged. Subsequent rebellions organized by the local population against the Teutonic state, initially by theLizard Unionand later by thePrussian Confederation,both pledging allegiance to the Polish king, caused theThirteen Years' Warwhich ultimately led to theSecond Peace of Thorn,when most of the region and was reclaimed by Poland and henceforth formed the bulk ofRoyal Prussia.

Pomerelia and Prussia after1466:
light grey – Teutonic/Monastic (later Ducal) Prussia
light green and yellow –voivodeshipsof Royal Prussia encompassing the genuinely Prussian territory
blue and magenta –voivodeshipsof Royal Prussia encompassing the Pomerelian territory outside of the region of Prussia

With theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466),the territory of the Monastic State was divided into eastern and western parts. The western part became the province ofRoyal Prussia(later also part of theGreater Poland Province) of theKingdom of Poland,while the eastern part of the monastic state became afiefandprotectorateof Poland, also considered an integral part of the "one and indivisible" Kingdom of Poland,[5]initially calledMonastic PrussiaorTeutonic Prussia,secularised in 1525 to become Ducal Prussia.[26]At the same time, the Polish monarchs assumed the title of the King of Prussia.

After Pomerelia was reintegrated with Poland in 1466, the designationPomeraniawas restored and used when referring to thePomeranian Voivodeship(Gdańsk Pomerania) and theChełmno Voivodeship,while the entire territory conquered by the Kingdom of Poland from the Teutonic Order was known asRoyal Prussia.The latter also included, however, also the truly Prussianhistorical areasofPrince-Bishopric of Warmia,as well as theMalbork Landcomprising northern parts ofPomesaniaandPogesania.These were the only actual Prussian territories of Royal Prussia. Initially enjoying broadautonomyincluding an own local legislature, thePrussian Estates,and maintaining its own laws, customs and rights, Royal Prussia was ultimately re-absorbed directly into theCrown of the Kingdom of Poland,following theUnion of Lublinin1569.The locally spoken language differed among social classes, with the aristocracy and urbanburghersinitially highly Germanised as a result of earlier Teutonic policies, but gradually shifting towards Polish in the later years, while the peasantry continued as predominantly Kashubian- and Polish-speaking West ofVistula;the part East of Vistula was predominantly German-speaking, with decreasing number of Old Prussian and increasing number of Polish minorities.[27]A small area in the west of Pomerelia, theLębork and BytówLand, was granted to the rulers of the Duchy of Pomerania as a Polishfiefbefore it was reintegrated with Poland in 1637, and later again transformed into a Polishfief,which it remained along theStarostwo of Draheimuntil theFirst Partition of Poland.

The realm of the King in Prussia established in 1701 from the former Ducal Prussia subsequently entered into an alliance with Austria and Russia, invading Polish territories of Royal Prussia. In theFirst Partition of Poland,the King in Prussia gained majority of the territory ofRoyal Prussiaincluding theLauenburg and Bütow Land(but excludingDanzigandToruńwhich were captured along with the region ofGreater Polandin theSecond Partition of Poland), as well as theStarostwo of Draheim.The formerRoyal Prussiawas divided in 1773. Its bulk which included the historically PrussianMalbork Land(northern parts ofPomesaniaandPogesania) but also the historically PolishPomerelia (Vistula Pomerania)formed the newly established province ofWest Prussia,while the namePomerania/Pomereliawas avoided by Prussian and later German authorities in relation to this region, aiming to eradicate its usage completely. The historically PrussianWarmiawas in turn integrated intoEast Prussia.[28]In contrast, theLauenburg and Bütow Landand theStarostwo of Draheimwere annexed in 1777 immediately into theProvince of Pomerania.The annexation ofRoyal Prussiaallowed the Prussian king to assume the title ofKing of Prussiathereafter.[29]Further attempts to expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia was undertaken following theSecond Partition of Poland,whenGreater Polandand Northern Masovia were annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia and renamedSouth Prussia,and theThird Partition of Poland,when Prussia annexed partsMasovia,Podlachia,Trakai VoivodeshipandSamogitiaunder the name ofNew East Prussia.Both invented names were eventually abandoned, following theNapoleonic Wars.All the annexed Polish lands remained outside of theHoly Roman Empireuntil its dissolution in 1806.

During theNapoleonic erathe Greater Polish territories and theChełmno Landformed part of theDuchy of Warsawfollowing theTreaties of Tilsit,andDanzigwas granted a status of aFree City.However, after theCongress of Vienna,the Polish duchy was again partitioned between Russia and Prussia, with Prussia annexing the Free City and the Chełmno Land into the reconstitutedWest Prussia.The annexation was associated with another attempt to artificially expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia by transferring the northern part ofNetze District,a fragment ofGreater Polanddetached from its bulk (theGrand Duchy of Posen), toWest Prussia,while the district's easternmost fragment was awarded to the Russian-ruledCongress Poland.

Though the Kingdom of Prussia was a member of theGerman Confederationestablished by theCongress of Viennaas a replacement for the dissolved Holy Roman Empire from 1815 to 1866, only those of the territories of the kingdom which were previously included in the HRE as well as theLauenburg and Bütow Landand the formerStarostwo of Draheim(both integrated into the Province of Pomerania) became part of the Confederation, while theGrand Duchy of Posen(later demoted to an ordinaryProvince of Posenfollowing the failedGreater Poland uprising (1848)), the Provinces ofWest PrussiaandEast Prussia(merged in the years 1829 to 1878 to form a singleProvince of Prussia) remained outside of theGerman Confederation(thus of Germany)[a]until the creation of theNorth German Confederationin 1866 at the start of theunification of Germany.[6]

Outside of the Kingdom of Prussia and later Germany,Pomereliawas termed Polish Pomerania (Pomorze Polskie) since at least the 18th century[30]to distinguish it fromHitherandFarther Pomerania,territories long outside of Polish rule. In the late 19th century this term was used in order to underlinePolishclaims to that area that was then ruled by theGermanKingdom of Prussia.The designation of Polish Pomerania became obsolete since Farther Pomerania and a small part of Hither Pomerania were also transferred to Poland as part of theterritories recoveredfrom Germany, followingWorld War II.

As agreed upon in theTreaty of Versailles,most of the Pomerelian part of the Province of West Prussia that had belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire since thePartitions of Polandwas retroceded to theSecond Polish Republic,becoming itsPomeranian Voivodeship,the (originally Prussian) territory ofRegierungsbezirk Westpreusseneast of Vistula remained with Germany as a part of East Prussia, while the western rim of Pomerelia became part of the German province ofPosen-West Prussia,named so in spite of containing no originally Prussian territory. Danzig became afree cityunder the protection of theLeague of Nations.[7]

The area was occupied and illegally annexed by theNazi Germanyduring theinvasion of Polandin 1939, as well as renamedReichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen,with numerousGerman atrocities against the local population.Nazi Germany also undertook another attempt to artificially expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia, this time by enlarging the territory of the province of East Prussia through annexation into it of parts of Northern Masovia under the name ofRegierungsbezirk Zichenau,as well as of theSuwałki Region,both referred to asSouth East Prussia,in relation to theNew East Prussiaof the times of Polish Partitions (see above). At the same time, theRegierungsbezirk Westpreussenwas separated from East Prussia and integrated intoReichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen.In the aftermath of theGerman attack on the Soviet Unionin June 1941, a further German attempt to expand the meaning of the designation of Prussia was undertaken, when the westernmost portion of Soviet Belarus (which, until 1939, belonged to thePolish state), was placed under the German Civilian Administration (Zivilverwaltungsgebiet) as theBialystok District,an entity in association with (but not part of) East Prussia, nevertheless it was also denoted on some Nazi maps asSouth East Prussia,with both territories remaining under common management and leadership ofErich Koch,awar criminalsentenced after the war by a Polish court to death, albeit with his penalty later commuted tolife imprisonment.

Following the example of earlier German policies, there was a short-lived initiative in the Polish post-World War II government to rename the newly acquired original Prussia to an invented name ofMasovian Pomerania;it was, however, quickly abandoned.

In 1995, the governments of Berlin and Brandenburg proposed to merge the states in order to form a new state with the name of "Berlin-Brandenburg", though some suggested calling the proposed new state "Prussia", in spite of the territories being located far away from the region of Prussia. The merger was rejected in aplebiscitein 1996 – while West Berliners voted for a merger, East Berliners and Brandenburgers voted against it.[31]

Early modern era[edit]

Further information:Duchy of Prussia,Brandenburg-Prussia,andKing in Prussia

In 1525, the lastGrand Masterreigning in theState of the Teutonic Order,Albert of Brandenburg,a member of a cadet branch of theHouse of Hohenzollern,adopted theLutheranfaith, resigned his position, and assumed the title of "Duke of Prussia".In a deal partially brokered byMartin Luther,theDuchy of Prussiabecame the first Protestant state and a vassal of Poland. The ducal capital ofKönigsberg,nowKaliningrad,became a centre of learning and printing through the establishment of theAlbertina Universityin 1544 for not only the dominantGermanculture, but also the thrivingPolishandLithuaniancommunities as well. It was in Königsberg that the firstLutheranbooks in Polish, Lithuanian, and Prussian languages were published.[32]

Rulership of Ducal Prussia passed to the seniorHohenzollernbranch, the ruling Electors ofBrandenburg,in 1618, and Polish sovereignty over the duchy ended in 1657 with theTreaty of Wehlau.There was strong opposition to the separation of the region from Poland, especially in Königsberg.[33]A confederation was formed in the city to maintain Poland's sovereignty over the city and region.[33]The Brandenburg Elector and his army, however, entered the city and abducted and imprisoned the leader of the city's anti-Elector oppositionHieronymus Roth.[33]In 1663, the city burghers, forced byElector Frederick William,swore an oath of allegiance to him, however, in the same ceremony they still also pledged allegiance to Poland.[33]

Taking advantage of the fact that Ducal Prussia lay outside of theHoly Roman Empire,Frederick Iachieved the elevation of the duchy to a kingdom in 1701, styling himselfKing in Prussia,because his kingdom included only part of historic Prussia, and the titleKing of Prussiawas still held by the Polish monarchs.[34]Lithuanian culture thrived in the part of the region known asLithuania Minor,while theKurseniekilived along the coast in the vicinity of theCuronianandVistula Spits.

TheOld Prussian languagehad mostly disappeared by 1700. The last speakers may have died in theplagueand famine that ravaged Prussia in 1709 to 1711.[35]In 1724, KingFrederick William I of PrussiaprohibitedPoles,SamogitiansandJewsfrom settling in Lithuania Minor in the eastern part of the region, and initiated German colonization to change the region's ethnic composition.[36]

  • Map by Caspar Henneberg, Elbing, 1576: Duchy and Royal Prussia originally with same colour (for the duchy the colour was added later)
    Map by Caspar Henneberg, Elbing, 1576:DuchyandRoyal Prussiaoriginally with same colour (for the duchy the colour was added later)
  • Map of Prussia by Leonhard Euler, 1753
    Map of Prussia byLeonhard Euler,1753

Modern era[edit]

Main articles:Kingdom of Prussia,Province of Prussia,East Prussia,andFree State of Prussia

The Province ofEast Prussia(the original Prussia) and the annexed Polish territories turned into theProvince of West Prussiawere merged in 1829 to form a singleProvince of Prussia,a part of the kingdom remaining outside ofGermany[a]until the creation of theNorth German Confederationin 1866 during theunification of Germany.[6]The merged territory was, however, again split into East and West Prussia in 1878.

As agreed upon in theTreaty of Versailles,East Prussia, minus theMemelland,expanded by addition of theRegierungsbezirk Westpreussen(the only part of former West Prussia containing originally Prussian territory) remained within theFree State of Prussia,a successor of theKingdom of Prussiaand a constituent part of the GermanWeimar Republic,following the1920 East Prussian plebiscite.[7]The democratic government of the Free State was removed as a result the1932 Prussian coup d'étatwhich also facilitated theNazi takeover of government.In theMarch 1933 German federal election,the last pre-war German elections, the local population of East Prussia voted overwhelmingly forAdolf Hitler'sNazi Party.

World War II[edit]

Memorial to the victims of theSoldau concentration campinDziałdowo

After the1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania,theKlaipėda regionwas integrated again into East Prussia. DuringWorld War II,the Polish ethnic minorities of CatholicWarmiansandPowiślans,as well as LutheranMasurianswere persecuted by theNazi Germangovernment, which wanted to erase all aspects of Polish culture and Polish language inWarmia,MasuriaandPowiśle[37][38]The Jews who remained in East Prussia in 1942 were shipped to concentration camps, includingTheresienstadtin occupiedCzechoslovakia,Kaiserwaldin occupiedLatvia,and camps inMinskin occupiedByelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.[39]

TheSoldau concentration campandHohenbruch concentration camp[de]were operated in the region mostly for Polish prisoners, as well as several subcamps of theStutthof concentration camp,and severalprisoner-of-war campsforAlliedPOWs, including Polish, Belgian, British,French,Dutch, Serbian, Italian, Soviet, Australian, Canadian, New Zealander, South African, such asStalag I-A,Stalag I-B,Stalag I-C,Stalag I-D,Stalag XX-B,Stalag Luft VI and Oflags 52, 53, 60 and 63 with numerousforced laboursubcamps.[40][41][42]Manyexpelled Polesfrom German-occupied Poland were enslaved by the Germans as forced labour in the region.[43]There was also a camp forRomani peoplein Königsberg (seeRomani Holocaust).[44]

ThePolish resistance movementwas active in the region, with activities including distribution ofPolish underground press,infiltration of the German arms industry,[45]sabotage actions, executions of Nazis, theft of German weapons, ammunition and equipment,[46]smuggling data on German concentration camps and prisons, and organization of transports of POWs who escaped German POW camps via the ports ofGdańskandGdyniatoneutralSweden.[47]

Beginning in 1944 with theEast Prussian offensiveof Soviet troops, the German-speaking population wasevacuated.

Contemporary era[edit]

Main articles:Evacuation of East Prussia,Potsdam Agreement,Masurian District,Abolition of Prussia,Olsztyn Voivodeship,Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship,andKaliningrad Oblast

The province ofEast Prussiaceased to exist in 1945, following thePotsdam Agreement,when it was divided betweenPolandand theSoviet Union,with the latter dividing its part further between theLithuanian SSRand theRussian SFSR.The part assigned to Poland was organized as the provisionalMasurian District,later reduced by the annexation of its northern strip with the towns ofGierdawyandIławkaby the Soviet Union,[48]and transferring its westernmost counties toGdańsk Voivodeshipand easternmost counties toBiałystok Voivodeship,and finally transformed intoOlsztyn Voivodeshipin 1946. The Klaipėda Region was returned to the Lithuanian SRR, while the remaining territory, annexed by the Russian FSSR, was in turn named theKaliningrad Oblastin 1946. The inhabitants not evacuated during the war wereexpelledin accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, with the exception of Polish minorities ofPowiślans,WarmiansandMasurians,considered to be of Polish descent. The situation was different, however, for thePrussian LithuaniansinLithuania Minor,a part of the Soviet share of the former East Prussia. The government of the Lithuanian SSR followed Soviet policy and viewed the Prussian Lithuanians as Germans. About 8,000 persons were repatriated fromDP campsduring 1945–50. However, their homes and farms were not returned as either Russians or Lithuanians had already occupied their property. Prussians who remained in the former Klaipėda Region were fired from their jobs and otherwise discriminated against.[49]After the collapse of the Soviet Union, some Prussian Lithuanians and their descendants did not regain lost property in the Klaipėda region.[50]

Prussia as a political entitywas abolishedon 25 February 1947 by decree of theAllied Control Council.The decree declared that Prussia from early days had been a bearer ofmilitarismandreactioninGermany. In line with this assessment and the ideological justification ofRecoverred Territories,the use of Prussia as a geographic designation was discouraged by the postwar authorities of Poland and the Soviet Union. The Polish region of Pomerelia (Gdansk Pomerania and the Chełmno Land) reverted to its original name already prior to World War II, as the name West Prussia was always regarded in Poland as an artificial German invention. In the case of East Prussia (the original Prussia), Polish authorities promoted using the designations ofPowiślein the case of Pomesania and Pogesania, approximately translated in English:“Vistula Plains”,Warmia in the case of the formerPrince-Bishopric of Warmiaand Masuria in the case of the remainder of Polish share of the former East Prussia. The designation ofKaliningrad Oblastwas promoted by the Soviet authorities in the case of the Russian part of the territory, instead. The policy was embraced by the Polish population who had hardly any sympathy for the legacy of Prussia, partially due to numerous attempts throughout history to annex various Polish territories with their subsequent artificial renaming as another part of Prussia in order to imply their originally Prussian history (see above), while the State of Prussia was perceived as a primary driving force for thePartitions of Polandwith subsequent persecution and attemptedGermanization of Poles,politically dominated by thePrussian Junkerswith stronganti-Polish sentiment,[51]and finally, the German Province of East Prussia was regarded as an area of persecutions against Polish-speaking minority (Warmians, Masurians, Powiślans), but most importantly as a Nazi political stronghold whose existence as an exclave resulted in Germanirredentistdemands towards Poland, blamed as one of the primary causes of the calamity ofWorld War IIand the ensuing German atrocities. An important factor was alsoWest Germany's rejection of the validity of the postwar Polish Western border on theOder–Neisse line(until 1972 total, 1972-1991de iure) rendering any attempts of Poles to remind or maintain the Prussian regional identity an easy target for the Polish authorities, interpreted as undermining future security and territorial integrity of Poland. The policy achieved its goals, and the name Prussia is nowadays used in Polish official documents and colloquial language almost exclusively in historical context, when referring toRoyal Prussia,theFree State of Prussiaand its preceding entities (the(post-1466) Monastic Prussia,the Duchy of Prussia, Brandenburg-Prussia and the Kingdom of Prussia), the former Province ofEast Prussia,or to the territory ofOld Prussians,but almost never when referring to contemporary geographic region. Since 1991, the name Prussia has, however, been re-acknowledged among Polish historians as the proper designation for the historic region, understood as defined by its original borders (excludingPomereliawithGdańsk Pomerania,theChełmnoand theMichałówLands, as well as sometimes theLubawaLand), resulting in its increasing usage in this context in the Polish scientific historical publications.

Powiśle,WarmiaandMasuriaare now in Poland (most of theWarmian-Masurian Voivodeship,and the four counties ofPomeranian Voivodeshipeast ofVistula), the former Memelland orKlaipėda regionis now divided between theKlaipėdaandTauragėcounties ofLithuania,while the rest of the northern Prussia forms theKaliningrad Oblastexclaveof theRussian Federation.[52]Only the latter part remains outside of theEuropean Union.

Sudivisions[edit]

Largest cities[edit]

City Population (2023) Country Administrative region Historic subregion
1 Kaliningrad 489,735 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Sambia
2 Olsztyn 168,212 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Warmia
3 Klaipėda 158,420 Lithuania Klaipėda County Lithuania Minor
4 Elbląg 113,567 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Powiśle
5 Ełk 60,070 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
6 Sovetsk 38,614 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Lithuania Minor
7 Kwidzyn 37,011 Poland Pomeranian Voivodeship Powiśle
8 Malbork 36,938 Poland Pomeranian Voivodeship Powiśle
9 Chernyakhovsk 35,705 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Lithuania Minor
10 Iława 32,245 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Powiśle
11 Ostróda 31,488 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
12 Gusev 28,820 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Lithuania Minor
13 Giżycko 27,596 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
14 Baltiysk 27,032 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Sambia
15 Kętrzyn 25,487 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria/Bartia
16 Bartoszyce 21,682 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Bartia
17 Szczytno 22,081 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
18 Svetly 21,054 Russia Kaliningrad Oblast Sambia
19 Mrągowo 20,808 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
20 Działdowo 20,367 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
21 Pisz 17,828 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
22 Braniewo 16,223 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Warmia
23 Šilutė 16,200 Lithuania Klaipėda County Lithuania Minor
24 Olecko 15,792 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Masuria
25 Lidzbark Warmiński 14,614 Poland Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship Warmia

Sights[edit]

Aerial view of theCuronian Spit

TheMalbork Castlein Poland and theCuronian Spitin Lithuania and Russia are designatedWorld Heritage Sites.There are nine sites designated asHistoric Monuments of Poland:

Notes[edit]

  1. ^abcHowever, the constitution promulgated by theFrankfurt Parliamentattempted to incorporate the Province of Prussia, as well as the western and northern parts of theProvince of Poseninto the short-livedGerman Empire (1848–1849)

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toPrussia.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Górski, Karol (1949).Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych(in Polish and Latin). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni.
  • Feuchtwanger, E. J. Prussia: Myth and Reality, The Role of Prussia in German History. Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1970
  • Shennan, Margaret. The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia. London: Routledge, 1995
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