Ottoman Empire

This article is about the empire. For the associated caliphate, seeOttoman Caliphate.

Sublime Ottoman State دولت عليه عثمانیه Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye
c.1299–1922
Flag (1844–1922) Coat of arms (1882–1922)
Motto: دولت ابدمدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet "The Eternal State"
Anthem: Various "Mahmudiye Marşı" (1829–1839, 1918–1922) "Mecidiye Marşı" (1839–1861) "Aziziye Marşı" (1861–1876) "Hamidiye Marşı"(modified) (1876–1909) "Reşadiye Marşı" (1909–1918)
Status	Empire
Capital	Söğüt (c.1299–1331) Nicaea(İznik) (1331–1335) Bursa (1335–1363) Adrianople(Edirne) (1363–1453) Constantinople(Istanbul) (1453–1922)
Official languages	Ottoman Turkish
Common languages	Arabic Persian Greek Chagatai French many others
Religion	Sunni Islam(state) School:Hanafi
Demonym(s)	Ottoman
Government	Absolute monarchy (c.1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922) Unitaryparliamentaryconstitutional monarchy (1876–1878; 1908–1920) Triumvirate dictatorship (1913–1918)
Sultan
•c.1299–1323/4 (first)	Osman I
• 1918–1922 (last)	Mehmed VI
Caliph
• 1517–1520 (first)	Selim I
• 1922–1924 (last)	Abdulmejid II
Grand vizier
• 1320–1331 (first)	Alaeddin Pasha
• 1920–1922 (last)	Ahmet Tevfik Pasha
Legislature	General Assembly (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
• Upper house (unelected)	Chamber of Notables (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
• Lower house (elected)	Chamber of Deputies (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
History
•Founded	c. 1299
•Interregnum	1402–1413
•Conquest of Constantinople	29 May 1453
•Constitutional Era I	1876–1878
•Constitutional Era II	1908–1920
•Ottoman coup d'état	23 January 1913
•Sultanate abolished	1 November 1922
•Republic of Turkeyestablished	29 October 1923
•Caliphate abolished	3 March 1924
Area
1481	1,220,000 km2(470,000 sq mi)
1521	3,400,000 km2(1,300,000 sq mi)
1683	5,200,000 km2(2,000,000 sq mi)
1913	2,550,000 km2(980,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1912	24,000,000
Currency	Akçe,sultani,para,kuruş(piastre),lira
Predecessor states and successor states Preceded by Succeeded by Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Byzantine Empire Despotate of the Morea Empire of Trebizond Principality of Theodoro Second Bulgarian Empire Tsardom of Vidin Despotate of Dobruja Despotate of Lovech Serbian Despotate Kingdom of Bosnia Zeta Kingdom of Hungary Kingdom of Croatia League of Lezhë Mamluk Sultanate Hafsid Kingdom Aq Qoyunlu Hospitaller Tripoli Kingdom of Tlemcen State of Turkey Hellenic Republic Caucasus Viceroyalty Principality of Bulgaria Eastern Rumelia Albania Kingdom of Romania Revolutionary Serbia Bosnia and Herzegovina Principality of Montenegro Emirate of Asir Kingdom of Hejaz OETA Mandatory Iraq French Algeria British Cyprus French Tunisia Italian Tripolitania Italian Cyrenaica Sheikhdom of Kuwait Kingdom of Yemen Sultanate of Egypt

TheOttoman Empire,historically and colloquially known as theTurkish Empire,was anempirecentred in Anatolia that controlled much ofSoutheast Europe,West Asia,andNorth Africafrom the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeasternCentral Europebetween the early 16th and early 18th centuries.

The empire emerged from abeylik,orprincipality,founded in northwesternAnatoliain 1299 by theTurkomantribal leaderOsman I.His successorsconqueredmuch of Anatolia and expanded into theBalkansby the mid-14th century, transforming theirpetty kingdominto a transcontinental empire. TheByzantine Empirewas ended with theconquest of Constantinoplein 1453 under the Ottoman sultanMehmed II,which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power. UnderSuleiman the Magnificent(1520–1566), the empire reached the peak of its power, prosperity, and political development. By the start of the 17th century, the Ottomans presided over32 provincesand numerousvassal states,which over time were either absorbed into the Empire or granted various degrees of autonomy.With its capital atConstantinople(modern-dayIstanbul) and control over a significant portion of theMediterranean Basin,the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between theMiddle EastandEuropefor six centuries.

While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered aperiod of declineafter the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, theHabsburgandRussian empires.The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory andglobal prestige.This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as theTanzimat;over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged.

Beginning in the late 19th century,various Ottoman intellectualssought to further liberalize society and politics along European lines, culminating in theYoung Turk Revolutionof 1908 led by theCommittee of Union and Progress(CUP), which established theSecond Constitutional Eraand introducedcompetitive multi-party electionsunder a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrousBalkan Wars,the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic,leading a coup d'étatin 1913 that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with theGerman Empirehoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joinedWorld War Ion the side of theCentral Powers.While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially theArab Revolt.During this period, the Ottoman government engaged ingenocideagainstArmenians,Assyrians,andGreeks.

In theaftermath of World War I,the victoriousAllied Powersoccupied andpartitionedthe Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to theUnited Kingdom and France.The successfulTurkish War of Independence,led byMustafa Kemal Atatürkagainst the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of theRepublic of Turkeyin the Anatolian heartland and theabolition of the Ottoman monarchyin 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire.

Name

See also:Osman I § Name

The wordOttomanis a historicalanglicisationof the name ofOsman I,the founder of the Empire and of the rulingHouse of Osman(also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic nameʿUthmān(عثمان). InOttoman Turkish,the empire was referred to asDevlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye(دولت عليه عثمانیه),lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State',or simplyDevlet-i ʿOsmānīye(دولت عثمانيه‎),lit. 'Ottoman State'.

The Turkish word for "Ottoman" (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.In theearly modern period,an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as anOsmanlınor as aTürk,but rather as aRūmī(رومى), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the formerByzantine Empirein the Balkans and Anatolia. The termRūmīwas also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.As applied to Ottoman Turkish speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.

In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly establishedAnkara-basedTurkish governmentchose Turkey as the sole official name. According toSvat Soucek,most scholarly historians at present avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.

History

Main article:History of the Ottoman Empire

See also:Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was foundedc. 1299byOsman Ias a smallbeylikin northwesternAsia Minorjust south of the Byzantine capitalConstantinople.In 1326, the Ottomans captured nearbyBursa,cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement atÇimpe Castleon theDardanellesin 1354 and moving their capital toEdirne(Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, thenumerous small Turkic statesin Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance.

As SultanMehmed IIconquered Constantinople(today namedIstanbul) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of theBalkansunder Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under SultanSelim I,who assumed theCaliphatein 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered westernArabia,Egypt,Mesopotamiaand theLevant,among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm.

The empire reached its apex underSuleiman the Magnificentin the 16th century, when it stretched from thePersian Gulfin the east toAlgeriain the west, and fromYemenin the south toHungaryand parts ofUkrainein the north. According to theOttoman decline thesis,Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of theBattle of Vienna.

From 1699onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, andnationalist revoltsamong its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to theEastern Questionin the mid-19th century.

The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat inWorld War I,when its remaining territory waspartitionedby theAllies.The sultanate was officially abolished by theGovernment of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankaraon 1 November 1922 following theTurkish War of Independence.Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East andSoutheast Europe,as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm.

Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state

See also:Ghaza thesis

Several historians, such as British historianEdward Gibbonand the Greek historianDimitri Kitsikis,have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under aTurkishMuslimguise.The American historianSperos Vryoniswrites that the Ottoman state centred on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".Kitsikis and the American historianHeath Lowryposit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historianPaul Wittek,who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "jihadstate "dedicated to expanding theMuslim world.Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historianMehmet Fuat Köprülüchampioned theGhaza thesis,according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadicTurkic tribeswho had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came fromPersia.

The British historianNorman Stonesuggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that thezeugariontax of Byzantium became the OttomanResm-i çifttax, that thepronoialand-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottomantimarsystem, and that the Ottoman land measurement thedönümwas the same as the Byzantinestremma.Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled theEastern Orthodox Church,which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under thetimarsystem were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouragedTimariotsfrom seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.

Government

Main article:State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

Topkapı PalaceandDolmabahçe Palacewere the primary residences of theOttoman sultansinIstanbulbetween 1465 and 1856and 1856 to 1922,respectively.

Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, thestate organisation of the Ottoman Empirewas a system with two main dimensions: the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from IslamicIranremained important in Ottoman administrative circles.According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context oforthodoxIslamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.

The Ottoman Empire, or, as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.In Europe, only theHouse of Habsburghad a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was adirect patrilineal (male-line) descendantof the first Ottoman sultanOsman I(d.1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of theImperial Haremwas to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations.

Ambassadors at the Topkapı Palace

The highest position in Islam,caliph,was claimed by the sultans starting withSelim I,which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan,pâdişâhor "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by thevalide sultan.On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women".New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan.The strong educational system of thepalace schoolwas geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, theMadrasa(Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported byvakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.The second track was a freeboarding schoolfor the Christians, theEnderûn,which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled inRumeliaor the Balkans, a process known asDevshirme(Devşirme).

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known asDivan.The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still aBeylik,was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became thede factohead of state.

Yusuf Ziya Pasha,Ottoman ambassador to the United States, inWashington DC,1913

Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed theImperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.

This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in theGreek languageto the west.

TheTughrawere calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylizedTughraspawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkishcalligraphy.

Law

Main article:Law of the Ottoman Empire

An unhappy wife complaining to theQadiabout her husband'simpotence,as depicted in an Ottoman miniature.DivorceisallowedinIslamic lawandcan be initiated by either the husband or the wife.

The Ottoman legal system accepted thereligious lawover its subjects. At the same time theQanun(orKanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law orSharia.The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of localjurisprudence.Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the localmillet.The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrativeQanun,i.e., laws, a system based upon the TurkicYassaandTöre,which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The IslamicSharialaw system had been developed from a combination of theQur'an;theHadīth,or words ofMuhammad;ijmā',or consensus of the members of theMuslim community;qiyas,a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were inIstanbulandBursa.

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was aQadi,or judge. Since the closing of theijtihad,or 'Gate of Interpretation',Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.

An Ottoman trial, 1877

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with theEdict of Gülhaneof 1839.These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to asNizamiye,this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of theMecelle,a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.

Military

Main article:Military of the Ottoman Empire

Ottomansipahisin battle, holding the crescent banner, byJózef Brandt

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of theOttoman Armyincluded Janissary,Sipahi,AkıncıandMehterân.The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began usingfalconets,which were short but wide cannons, during theSiege of Constantinople.The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fastTurkomanandArabianhorses (progenitors of theThoroughbredracing horse),and often applied tactics similar to those of theMongol Empire,such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.

ModernisedErtugrul Cavalry Regimentcrossing theGalata Bridgein 1901

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as theNizam-ı Cedid(New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.

TheOttoman fleetin theBosphorousnearOrtaköy

TheOttoman Navyvastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition ofAlgeriaand Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. SultanAbdülaziz(reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its firstsubmarinein 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.

However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. SultanAbdülhamid IIdistrusted the admirals who sided with the reformistMidhat Pashaand claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside theGolden Horn,where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. TheOttoman Navy Foundationwas established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Ottoman pilotsin early 1912

The establishment ofOttoman military aviationdates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) inYeşilköyon 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. TheOttoman Aviation Squadronsfought on many fronts during World War I, fromGaliciain the west to the Caucasus in the east andYemenin the south.

Administrative divisions

Main article:Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire

Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)

The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.

TheEyalet(alsoPashalikorBeylerbeylik) was the territory of office of aBeylerbey( "lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided intoSanjaks.

TheVilayetswere introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi)in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet,liva/sanjak/mutasarrifate,kazaandvillage council,to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added thenahiye.

Economy

Main article:Economic history of the Ottoman Empire

Coins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire atAydın Archaeological Museum

Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of theReconquista.The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

A European bronze medal from the period ofSultan Mehmed the Conqueror,1481

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen" ) as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

TheOttoman Bankwas founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank wasoccupiedby members of theArmenian Revolutionary Federation.

Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.TheAnglo-Ottoman Treaty,also known as theTreaty of Balta Limanthat opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.

By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

Economic historianPaul Bairochargues thatfree tradecontributed todeindustrialisationin the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to theprotectionismof China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had aliberal tradepolicy, open to foreign imports. This has origins incapitulations of the Ottoman Empire,dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further withcapitulationsin 1673 and 1740, which lowereddutiesto 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such asJohn Ramsay McCullochin hisDictionary of Commerce(1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846Corn Lawsdebate.

Demographics

Main article:Demographics of the Ottoman Empire

Smyrnaunder Ottoman rule in 1900

A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.

Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.

View ofGalata(Karaköy) and theGalata Bridgeon theGolden Horn,c. 1880–1893

However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq andSyriaand five times the population density of Arabia.

Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

The town ofSafranboluis one of the best preserved Ottoman villages.

Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, theRussianand Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are calledMuhacir.By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.

Language

Main article:Languages of the Ottoman Empire

1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish, Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian and French

Ottoman Turkishwas the official language of the Empire.It was anOghuzTurkic languagehighly influenced byPersianandArabic,though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.

The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such asAlbania,Bosniaand theMegleno-Romanian-inhabitedNânti;Persian, only spoken by the educated;Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, theLevant,Arabia,Iraq, North Africa,Kuwaitand parts of theHorn of AfricaandBerberin North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,whileArabicwas used for Islamic prayers. In the post-Tanzimatperiod French became the common Western language among the educated.

Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hirescribesas "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government.Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnicTurksspoke Turkish as a second language.

Religion

See also:Millet (Ottoman Empire)

Abdülmecid IIwas the lastcaliphof Islam and a member of theOttoman dynasty.

Sunni Islamwas the prevailingDīn(customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the officialMadh'hab(school of Islamicjurisprudence) wasHanafi.From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as thecaliph,or politico-religious leader, of theMuslim world.Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered toSufismand followedSufi orders,and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.

Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.

Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration andsecession.The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.

Islam

Main articles:Islam in the Ottoman Empire,Ottoman Caliphate,andOttoman persecution of Alevis

See also:Islam in Turkey

Turkic peoplespracticed a form ofshamanismbefore adopting Islam. TheMuslim conquest of Transoxianaunder theAbbasidsfacilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including theOghuz Turks,who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported theMaturidi school ofIslamic theology,which emphasizedhuman reason,rationality,the pursuit of science andphilosophy(falsafa).The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of theHanafischool of Islamic jurisprudence,which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.

TheYıldız Hamidiye MosqueinIstanbul,Turkey

The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, includingDruze,Ismailis,Alevis,andAlawites.Sufism,a diverse body of Islamicmysticism,found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (tariqa), such as theBektashiandMevlevi,were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings ofIbn Taymiyya,a member of the conservativeHanbali school.In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered afifth columnfor the rivalSafavid Empire.

During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly theconquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypton the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being anIslamic caliphate,although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until theoffice's abolition on 3 March 1924by theRepublic of Turkey(and the exile of the last caliph,Abdülmecid II,to France).

Christianity and Judaism

Main articles:Christianity in the Ottoman EmpireandHistory of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

Mehmed the Conquerorand PatriarchGennadius II

In accordance with the Muslimdhimmisystem, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "people of the book",such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (zakat) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (ordhimmi) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including thejizya,which was a key source of state revenue.Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.

The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as themillet,which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerningdhimmi.A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community ofMount Athos,which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.

TheRumMillet,which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-eraCorpus Juris Civilis(Code of Justinian), with theEcumenical Patriarchdesignated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi,orethnarch). Likewise,Ottoman Jewscame under the authority of theHaham Başı,or OttomanChief Rabbi,whileArmenianswere under the authority of thechief bishopof theArmenian Apostolic Church.As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.

Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example ofreligious pluralism,as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.

Social-political-religious structure

See also:Rayah

Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = Lazes, Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = Nestorians

Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by SultanSelim III.His successor SultanMahmud II(r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.

The originalChurch of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbulwas built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.

The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.The political system was transformed by the destruction of theJanissaries,a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in theAuspicious Incidentof 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.

The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.They were primarilyGreek,Armenian,orJewish.In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.

Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.

Hemdat Israel SynagogueofIstanbul

At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by theayansor local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.

After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.

Culture

Main article:Culture of the Ottoman Empire

Depiction of ahookahshop inLebanon

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.

Slaverywas part of Ottoman society,with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems ofchattel slavery,slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail theOttoman slave tradebut slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.

Plagueremained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."

Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.

Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire,Safavid IranandAbu'l-Khayrid ShibanidsofCentral Asia.Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.

Education

Main article:Education in the Ottoman Empire

The Beyazıt State Library was founded in 1884.

In the Ottoman Empire, eachmilletestablished a schooling system serving its members.Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.

Several "foreign schools" (Frerler mektebleri) operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".

Literature

Main article:Ottoman literature

The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry andprose.Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, theİskendernâme,was composed by the poetTaceddin Ahmedi(1334–1413).Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the Europeanromance,short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in bothTurkish folk literatureand inDivan poetry.

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From thePersian poetrythat largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظيرmura'ât-i nazîr/تناسبtenâsüb) and opposition (تضادtezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry waslyricin nature: eithergazels(which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind ofverse romanceand thus a variety ofnarrative poetry;the two most notable examples of this form are theLeyli and MajnunofFuzuliand theHüsn ü AşkofŞeyh Gâlib.TheSeyahatnâmeofEvliya Çelebi(1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.

Ahmet Nedîm Efendi,one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets

Until the 19th century,Ottoman prosedid not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules ofsec(سجع,also transliterated asseci), orrhymed prose,a type of writing descended from the Arabicsaj'that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception wasMuhayyelât(Fancies) byGiritli Ali Aziz Efendi,a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire wasVartan Pasha's 1851The Story of Akabi(Turkish:Akabi Hikyayesi). It was written in Turkish but withArmenianscript.

Due to historically close ties with France,French literatureconstituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence ofRomanticismcan be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of theRealistandNaturalistmovements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of theSymbolistandParnassianmovements was paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poetNamık Kemalalso wrote the important 1876 novelİntibâh(Awakening), while the journalistİbrahim Şinasiis noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, theone-actcomedyŞair Evlenmesi(The Poet's Marriage). An earlier play, afarcetitledVakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed(The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelistAhmed Midhat Efendiwrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr,1873;Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery), Realism (Henüz on Yedi Yaşında,1881;Just Seventeen Years Old), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât,1891;Observations). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottomansocial structures.

Media

Main article:Media of the Ottoman Empire

The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages includingFrench,Greek,andGerman.Many of these publications were centred inConstantinople,but there were also French-language newspapers produced inBeirut,Salonika,andSmyrna.Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as alingua francaand used French-language publications,while some provincial newspapers were published inArabic.The use of French in the media persisted until theend of the empirein 1923 and for a few years thereafter in theRepublic of Turkey.

Architecture

Main article:Ottoman architecture

Süleymaniye Mosquein Istanbul, designed byMimar Sinanin the 16th century and a major example of theClassical Ottoman style

Blue Mosquein Istanbul, an example of theclassical styleof Ottoman architecture, showingByzantineinfluence.

The architecture of the empire developed from earlierSeljuk Turkish architecture,with influences fromByzantineandIranianarchitecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.Early Ottoman architectureexperimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into theClassical Ottoman styleof the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by theHagia Sophia.The most important architect of the Classical period isMimar Sinan,whose major works include theŞehzade Mosque,Süleymaniye Mosque,andSelimiye Mosque.The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditionalByzantine artwith elements ofChinese art.The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use ofIznik tiles.

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by theBaroque architecturein Western Europe, resulting in theOttoman Baroquestyle.Nuruosmaniye Mosqueis one of the most important examples from this period.The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from theBalyan family.Empire styleandNeoclassicalmotifs were introduced and a trend towardseclecticismwas evident in many types of buildings, such as theDolmabaçe Palace.The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as theFirst National Architectural Movement,by architects such asMimar KemaleddinandVedat Tek.

Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centres such asAmasyaandManisa.It was in these centres that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as akülliye,that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include amadrasa,ahammam,animaret,asebil,a market, acaravanserai,aprimary school,or others.These complexes were governed and managed with the help of avakıfagreement (Arabicwaqf).Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces olderIslamic architecturalstyles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.

Decorative arts

Further information:Ottoman illuminationandOttoman miniature

Ottoman miniaturelost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.

The tradition ofOttoman miniatures,painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by thePersianart form, though it also included elements of theByzantinetradition ofilluminationand painting.A Greek academy of painters, theNakkashane-i-Rum,was established in theTopkapi Palacein the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, theNakkashane-i-Irani,was added.Surname-i Hümayun(Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.

Ottoman illuminationcovers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets inmuraqqaor albums, as opposed to the figurative images of theOttoman miniature.It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat),Islamic calligraphy,bookbinding (cilt) andpaper marbling(ebru). In the Ottoman Empire,illuminated and illustrated manuscriptswere commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working inNakkashane,the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albumslevhaconsisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) oftughra,religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

The art of carpetweavingwas particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.The weaving of such carpets originated in thenomadiccultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, andkilimsnot just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.

Music and performing arts

Further information:Ottoman Music

Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from theSurname-i Hümayun,1720

Ottoman classical musicwas an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such asSelim III,whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence ofByzantine music,Armenian music,Arabic music,andPersian music.Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units calledusul,which are somewhat similar tometerin Western music, andmelodicunits calledmakam,which bear some resemblance to Westernmusical modes.

Theinstrumentsused are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (thesaz,thebağlama,thekemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (theud,thetanbur,thekanun,theney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds offolk musicwere created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were:Janissary music,Roma music,Belly dance,Turkish folk music.

The traditionalshadow playcalledKaragöz and Hacivatwas widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied bytambourine(def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.

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  Miniature fromSurname-i Vehbishowing theMehteran,the music band of theJanissaries
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  The shadow playKaragöz and Hacivatwas widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.
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  A musical gathering in the 18th century
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  Acrobacy inSurname-i Hümayun

Cuisine

Main article:Ottoman cuisine

Turkish women baking bread, 1790

Ottoman cuisineis the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance throughRamadanevents, and through the cooking at theYalısof thePashas,and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especiallyTurkish,and includingGreek,Balkan,Armenian,andMiddle Easterncuisines.Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, includeyogurt,döner kebab/gyro/shawarma,cacık/tzatziki,ayran,pitabread,fetacheese,baklava,lahmacun,moussaka,yuvarlak,köfte/keftés/kofta,börek/boureki,rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia,meze,dolma,sarma,ricepilaf,Turkish coffee,sujuk,kashk,keşkek,manti,lavash,kanafeh,and more.

Sports

Members ofBeşiktaş J.K.in 1903

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in wereTurkish wrestling,hunting,Turkish archery,horseback riding,equestrian javelin throw,arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity offootballmatches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, wereBeşiktaş Gymnastics Club(1903),Galatasaray Sports Club(1905),Fenerbahçe Sports Club(1907),MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü)(1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such asKarşıyaka Sports Club(1912),Altay Sports Club(1914) andTurkish Fatherland Football Club(laterÜlküspor) (1914) ofİzmir.

Science and technology

Main article:Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire

TheConstantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Dinin 1577

Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century.Sultan Mehmet IIorderedGeorgios Amiroutzes,a Greek scholar fromTrabzon,to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book ofPtolemy.Another example isAli Qushji—anastronomer,mathematicianandphysicistoriginally fromSamarkand—who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople before his death.

Taqi al-Dinbuilt theConstantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Dinin 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated theeccentricityof the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of theapogee.However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainlyastrologicalrather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.He also experimented withsteam powerinOttoman Egyptin 1551, when he described asteam jackdriven by a rudimentarysteam turbine.

Girl Reciting the Qurān(Kuran Okuyan Kız), an 1880 painting by the Ottoman polymathOsman Hamdi Bey,whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities

In 1660, the Ottoman scholarIbrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari TezkirecitranslatedNoël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.

Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğluwas the author of the first surgical atlas and the last majormedical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world.Though his work was largely based onAbu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi'sAl-Tasrif,Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such asforceps,catheters,scalpels and lancetsas well aspincers.

An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker,Meshur Sheyh Dede,in 1702.

In the early 19th century,Egypt under Muhammad Alibegan usingsteam enginesfor industrial manufacturing, with industries such asironworks,textile manufacturing,paper millsandhullingmills moving towards steam power.Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption ofoilas a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.

In the 19th century,Ishak Efendiis credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.

See also

• 16 Great Turkic Empires
• Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire
• Empire of the Sultans
• Gunpowder empires
• Historiography of the Ottoman Empire
• Outline of the Ottoman Empire
• List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire
• List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire
• List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings
• List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman wars in Europe
• Turkic history

References

Sources

• Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.).Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey.Alexandria Press.ISBN978-0-500-97374-5.
• Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995).The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-06465-0.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023.Retrieved9 March2022.
• Freely, John (2011).A History of Ottoman Architecture.WIT Press.ISBN978-1-84564-506-9.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023.Retrieved9 March2022.
• Itzkowitz, Norman (1980).Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition.ISBN978-0-226-38806-9.
• Kinross, Lord (1979).The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire.Harper Collins.ISBN978-0-688-08093-8.popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
• Kuban, Doğan (2010).Ottoman Architecture.Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club.ISBN978-1-85149-604-4.
• Quataert, Donald(1983).Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.
• Quataert, Donald;Spivey, Diane M. (2000).Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922.SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-4431-3.
• Rogan, Eugene (2011).The Arabs: A History.Penguin.ISBN978-0-465-03248-8.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023.Retrieved9 September2021.
• Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024).Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.ISBN978-1-5036-3696-5.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2024.Retrieved20 May2024.

Further reading

For a more comprehensive list, seeBibliography of the Ottoman Empire.

External links

• Ottoman Text Archive ProjectArchived19 May 2024 at theWayback Machine
• Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources– University of Michigan
• Historians of the Ottoman Empire– University of Chicago
• Turkey in Asia,1920