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Oulu

Coordinates:65°00′51″N25°28′19″E/ 65.01417°N 25.47194°E/65.01417; 25.47194
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This article is about a city of North Ostrobothnia, Finland. For a town in Bayfield County, Wisconsin, seeOulu, Wisconsin.For other uses, seeOulu (disambiguation).
Oulu
Uleåborg(Swedish)
City
Oulun kaupunki
Uleåborgs stad
City of Oulu
From top, left to right: Rantakatu in downtown Oulu; Oulu City Hall; Lyseo Upper Secondary School and the Oulu Cathedral; Shops along Kirkkokatu; Radisson Blu Hotel along Ojakatu
From top, left to right: Rantakatu in downtown Oulu;Oulu City Hall;Lyseo Upper Secondary Schooland theOulu Cathedral;Shops along Kirkkokatu; Radisson Blu Hotel along Ojakatu
Flag of Oulu
Flag
Coat of arms of Oulu
Coat of arms
Nickname(s):
Capital of Northern Finland;[1]Capital of NorthernScandinavia[2]
Location of Oulu in Finland
Location of Oulu in Finland
Coordinates:65°00′51″N25°28′19″E/ 65.01417°N 25.47194°E/65.01417; 25.47194
CountryFinland
RegionNorth Ostrobothnia
Sub-regionOulu
Charter1605-04-08
Government
•City managerAri Alatossava
Area
(2018-01-01)[3]
• City3,817.52 km2(1,473.95 sq mi)
• Land2,972.44 km2(1,147.67 sq mi)
• Water103.2 km2(39.8 sq mi)
• Urban
187.1 km2(72.2 sq mi)
• Rank17th largestin Finland
Population
(2023-12-31)[5]
• City214,633
• Rank5th largestin Finland
• Density72.21/km2(187.0/sq mi)
•Urban
208 939[4]
• Urban density915.8/km2(2,372/sq mi)
Demonymoululainen(Finnish)
Population by native language
[6]
•Finnish93.7% (official)
•Swedish0.2%
•Sami0.1%
• Others6%
Population by age
[7]
• 0 to 1417.4%
• 15 to 6466%
• 65 or older16.6%
Time zoneUTC+02:00(EET)
• Summer (DST)UTC+03:00(EEST)
Websitewww.ouka.fi/enEdit this at Wikidata

Oulu(/ˈoʊluː/OH-loo,[9][10]Finnish:[ˈou̯lu]ⓘ;Swedish:Uleåborg[ʉːlɛɔˈbɔrj]ⓘ) is a city inFinlandand the regional capital ofNorth Ostrobothnia.It is located on the northwestern coast of the country at the mouth of theRiver Oulu.The population of Oulu is approximately 215,000, while thesub-regionhas a population of approximately 263,000. It is the 5th most populousmunicipalityin Finland, and the fourth most populousurban areain the country. Oulu is also the most populous city in Northern Finland.

Oulu's neighbouring municipalities are:Hailuoto,Ii,Kempele,Liminka,Lumijoki,Muhos,Pudasjärvi,TyrnäväandUtajärvi.Oulu is the third northernmost city in the world with a population of over 100,000, afterMurmanskandNorilskinRussia.

Due to its large population and geopolitical, economic and cultural-historical position, Oulu has been called the "capital of Northern Finland".[1]Oulu is also considered one of Europe's "living labs", where residents experiment with new technologies (such asNFC tagsandubi-screens) on a community-wide scale.[11]Although only in the top 2% of universities,[12]theUniversity of Ouluis regionally renowned in the field of information technology.[13][14][15]Oulu has also been very successful in recent city image surveys; in a study published by the Finnish Economic Survey in 2008, Oulu received the best image rating among large cities in the country, including ratings from respondents in allprovinces.[16]In the 2023 T-Media survey, Oulu was tied withKuopioas the second most attractive city in Finland, whileTamperewas ranked first.[17]

Once known forwood tarandsalmon,[18]Oulu has become a major high-tech centre, particularly inITandwellnesstechnology.[19]Other important industries includewood processing,chemicals,pharmaceuticals,paperandsteel.[20]

Oulu has been selected as theEuropean Capital of Culturefor 2026.[21][22]

Etymology

[edit]

The city is named after the riverOulujoki,which originates in the lakeOulujärvi.There have been a number of other theories for the origin of the nameOulu.One possible source is a word in theSami languagemeaning 'flood water', but there are other suggestions. At minimum, the structure of the word requires that, if originally given by speakers of aUraliclanguage, the name must be aderivative.In all likelihood, it also predates Finnish settlement and is thus aloanwordfrom one of the now-extinctSaami languagesonce spoken in the area.

The most probable theory is that the name derives from the Finnish dialectal wordoulu,meaning "floodwater",which is related to e.g.Southern Samiåulo,meaning "melted snow",åulotmeaning "thaw" (of unknown ultimate origin). Two other word families have also been speculated to be related. The first is seen in the Northern Savo dialectal worduulaand its Sami counterpartoalli,both meaning "river channel". The second is the Uralic rootreconstructedas *uwa,meaning "river bed" (reflected asvuoin modern Finnish, also in derivatives such asvuolas"heavy-flowing" ). To either of these roots, some Sami variety would have to be assumed having added further derivational suffixes.[23]

History

[edit]
Drawing of central Oulu from the 19th century

Oulu is situated by theGulf of Bothnia,at the mouth of riverOulujoki,which is an ancient trading site.

Following theTreaty of Nöteborgin 1323, the status of Oulu was disputed in its ownership, as both theNovgorod Republicand theKingdom of Swedenheld much influence. In 1345, the Kingdom of Sweden annexed territory up to theKemi Riverfor theDiocese of Turku.In 1375, the Novgorod Republic built a defensive castle which was later captured by theKingdom of Swedenin 1377.[24]

The 1400s were characterized by Russian raids in the region, during these raids captured people would be killed and/or taken back to the region of Russia.[25]In 1531, the city was granted permission to act as atrading post.[24]In 1590, theOulu Castlewas built by the Swedes and in 1595, theTreaty of Teusinafirmly established Sweden's control over Oulu.

The city was founded on 8 April 1605 by KingCharles IX of Sweden,and granted city privileges in 1610.[26]In 1765, Oulu received township rights granting them to trade outside of Sweden.[27]Oulu was the capital of theProvince of Oulufrom 1776 to 2009.

In 1822, a major fire destroyed much of the city, especially thecity centreas most of the city was made from wood.[28]The architectCarl Ludvig Engel,chiefly known for theneoclassical(empire style) buildings aroundHelsinki Senate Square,was enlisted to provide the plan for its rebuilding. With minor changes, this plan remains the basis for the layout of Oulu's town center. TheOulu Cathedralwas built in 1832 to his designs, with the spire being finished in 1844. During theÅland War,part of theCrimean War,Oulu's harbour was raided by the British fleet, who destroyed ships and burned tar houses,[29]leading to international criticism.[citation needed]

The city was the site of theBattle of Ouluon 3 February 1918 between theWhitesand theRedsduring theFinnish Civil War.[30]

Geography

[edit]
Satellite image of the Oulu region.

Oulu is located in northern Finland, a considerable distance from the other cities in the country. It is located 607 kilometres (377 mi) north of the capital cityHelsinki.Mainland Finland's northernmost and southernmost points are roughlyequidistantfrom Oulu. Oulu's coast sits at theBothnian Bay(Perämeriin Finnish) and theSwedish mainlandis about 180 km directly west across the Bothnian Bay. From the center of Oulu in the direction ofOulunsalo,there isKempeleenlahti[fi],a smaller but wide,meadow-belted bay,[31]and part of it has been listed as a natureconservation area.[32]The nearby islandHailuotois just off the coast, 53 kilometres (33 mi) away in the Bothnian Bay. Along the coast to the southwest, about 75 kilometres (47 mi) of Oulu isRaahe(Brahestad), known for its historic wooden town, and about 130 kilometres (81 mi) of Oulu isKalajoki,known for its popular sandy beaches.

Subdivisions

[edit]
See also:Category:Districts of Oulu
The map of Oulu from 1886.

Oulu is divided into 106 city districts. The largest of these areHaukipudas,Oulunsalo,Kaakkuri,Ritaharju,Tuira,andKello[fi].

The municipality ofYlikiiminkiwas merged with the city of Oulu on 1 January 2009. Oulu and the municipalities ofHaukipudas,Kiiminki,Oulunsalo,andYli-Iiwere merged on 1 January 2013.[33]

Climate

[edit]

Oulu has asubarctic climate(Köppen:Dfc), bordering ahumid continental climate(Köppen:Dfb). It is the largestFinnish cityentirely in this climatic zone as well as one of the largest such in the world. The typical features are cold and snowy winters with short and mild summers.[34][35]Average annual temperature is 3.3 °C (37.9 °F). The average annual precipitation is 477 mm (18.78 in) falling 105 days per year, mostly in late summer and fall.[citation needed]The warmest temperature ever recorded in Oulu was 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) in July 1957,[36]while the coldest temperature on record was −41.5 °C (−42.7 °F) in February 1966.[37]

Due to Oulu's far northern location, and its frequent overcast skies, it only sees on average 15 minutes of sunshine per day in December. During thewinter solsticedays only last 3 hours and 34 minutes with the sun rising 1.9 degrees over the horizon. On the other hand, during thesummer solsticedays last 22 hours and 3 minutes, with the sun dipping 1 degree below the horizon. This gives Ouluwhite nightsduring the summer.[38]

On June 21, 2021, Oulu was struck by the Ahtithunderstorm,causing flooding and fall of trees with the wind blowing at more than 30 meters per second.[39]The storm is known to have killed one person and injured two people.[40][41]

Climate data for Oulu, 1991–2020 normals, records 1921–present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 9.3
(48.7) 		7.8
(46.0) 		11.5
(52.7) 		23.9
(75.0) 		29.9
(85.8) 		32.3
(90.1) 		33.3
(91.9) 		30.5
(86.9) 		25.4
(77.7) 		21.1
(70.0) 		11.2
(52.2) 		8.2
(46.8) 		33.3
(91.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) −4.8
(23.4) 		−4.7
(23.5) 		−0.4
(31.3) 		5.8
(42.4) 		12.6
(54.7) 		17.9
(64.2) 		21.1
(70.0) 		18.9
(66.0) 		13.2
(55.8) 		5.8
(42.4) 		0.5
(32.9) 		−2.7
(27.1) 		6.9
(44.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) −8.2
(17.2) 		−8.4
(16.9) 		−4.4
(24.1) 		1.6
(34.9) 		8.0
(46.4) 		13.7
(56.7) 		16.7
(62.1) 		14.6
(58.3) 		9.6
(49.3) 		3.3
(37.9) 		−1.6
(29.1) 		−5.3
(22.5) 		3.3
(38.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −11.9
(10.6) 		−12.1
(10.2) 		−8.3
(17.1) 		−2.5
(27.5) 		3.4
(38.1) 		9.3
(48.7) 		12.4
(54.3) 		10.6
(51.1) 		6.0
(42.8) 		0.6
(33.1) 		−4.2
(24.4) 		−8.8
(16.2) 		−0.5
(31.2)
Record low °C (°F) −37.5
(−35.5) 		−41.5
(−42.7) 		−32
(−26) 		−21.4
(−6.5) 		−9.1
(15.6) 		−6.1
(21.0) 		3.6
(38.5) 		−1.5
(29.3) 		−8.0
(17.6) 		−20.6
(−5.1) 		−33
(−27) 		−37.2
(−35.0) 		−41.5
(−42.7)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 32
(1.3) 		29
(1.1) 		26
(1.0) 		23
(0.9) 		40
(1.6) 		51
(2.0) 		80
(3.1) 		62
(2.4) 		49
(1.9) 		51
(2.0) 		43
(1.7) 		39
(1.5) 		525
(20.5)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 33
(13) 		46
(18) 		43
(17) 		7
(2.8) 		— — — — — — 4
(1.6) 		17
(6.7) 		150
(59)
Average precipitation days 9 8 7 6 8 8 10 10 8 10 10 10 104
Averagerelative humidity(%)(daily average) 87 86 82 73 67 66 71 76 82 86 90 89 80
Mean monthlysunshine hours 24 69 137 208 273 296 283 212 133 69 28 8 1,740
Averageultraviolet index 0 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 0 2
Source 1:FMI[42]
Source 2:FMI(record highs and lows 1921–1961)[43]

FMI(record highs and lows 1961–present)[44]

Source 3: weather2travel.com (average monthly UV index)[45]

Demographics

[edit]

Population

[edit]

The city of Oulu has 214,633 inhabitants, making it the 5th most populous municipality in Finland. TheOulu regionhas a population of 262,736, making it the fourth largest region in Finland afterHelsinki,TampereandTurku.Oulu is home to 4% of Finland's population. 6.1% of the population has a foreign background, which is lower than in the major Finnish cities ofHelsinki,Espoo,Tampere,VantaaorTurku.[46]

Population size of Oulu (and merged municipalities) 1980–2020[47]
Year Population
1980
121,809
1985
128,869
1990
136,029
1995
146,395
2000
160,851
2005
173,436
2010
185,419
2015
198,525
2020
207,327

Languages

[edit]

Population by native language (2023)[46]

Finnish (93.7%)
Russian (0.6%)
Arabic (0.5%)
English (0.5%)
Chinese (0.4%)
Farsi (0.3%)
Somali (0.2%)
Other (3.8%)

Oulu is the second largest monolingualFinnish-speakingmunicipality in Finland after Tampere. There are 497Swedish speakersin Oulu, or0.2% of the population.[46]The number ofSámispeakers, Finland's third official language, is 155 inhabitants. As English and Swedish are compulsory school subjects, functional bilingualism or trilingualism acquired through language studies is not uncommon.

At least 100 different languages are spoken in Oulu. The most common foreign languages areRussian(0.6%),Arabic(0.5%),English(0.5%) andChinese(0.4%).[46]

Immigration

[edit]
Population by country of birth (2022)[47]
Nationality Population %
Finland 199,613 94.2
Sweden 1,913 0.9
Soviet Union 842 0.4
China 610 0.3
Iraq 528 0.2
India 509 0.2
Vietnam 377 0.2
Thailand 374 0.2
Russia 361 0.2
Iran 336 0.2
Somalia 311 0.1
Other 6,074 2.9

As of 2023,13,040 people with a migrant background lived in Oulu, or 6.1% of the population.[note 1]There are 13,986 residents who were born abroad, which or 6.5% of the population. The number of foreign citizens in Oulu is 9,405.[46][49]Most foreign-born citizens come from the formerSoviet Union,Sweden,Iraq,China and India.[47]

The relative share of immigrants in Oulu's population is below the national average. Nevertheless, the city's new residents are increasingly of foreign origin. This will increase the proportion of foreign residents in the coming years.

Religion

[edit]

In 2023, theEvangelical Lutheran Churchwas the largest religious group with 67.2% of the population of Oulu. Other religious groups accounted for 1.9% of the population. 30.9% of the population had no religious affiliation.[50]

Oulu, as well as other parts of North Ostrobothnia, is well known as a strong support area of theConservative Laestadianismrevival movement.[51]ALaestadian backgroundhas been estimated to be common in construction sector management.[52]Oulu was the site of the 2018Oulu child sexual exploitation scandal.Prime MinisterJuha Sipilädeclared that "Sex crimes against children are inhumane acts of incomprehensible evil."[53]

Economy

[edit]
Stora Ensohas an important paper manufacturing plant in Oulu.
FormerNokiapremises in Peltola.
Technopolis Linnanmaa is home to nearly 200 corporations.

As of 31 December 2008, the active working population was employed as follows:[54]

Industries Working population
Services 43,049
Industry 11,111
Commerce 10,848
Construction 5,449
Transport 3,698
Farming, forestry and mining 582
Unknown 431
Unemployment rate 16.3% (2016)
Total 75,158

In 2011, the most important employers were:[54]

Employer No. of employees
City of Oulu 9,709
Northern Ostrobothnia Hospital District 6,144
University of Oulu 3,045
Nokia Networks 2,100
Nokia Group 2,000
The Oulu Region Joint Authority for Vocational Training 1,955
Kesko Group 1,426
Cooperative Arina Group (S Group) 1,107
Stora Enso Group 1,155
Itella Corporation 780
ISS Palvelut Oy 730
ODL Group 653

Culture

[edit]
Air Guitar World Championships2012, an annual event held in Oulu since 1996

The best known cultural exports of the city of Oulu are theAir Guitar World Championshipsheld annually in August,Mieskuoro Huutajat(also known asScreaming Men), the now defunct metal bandSentenced,and one of the best ice hockey teams in Europe,Oulun Kärpät.

Many artists, writers, and musicians live in the city. A variety of concerts – rock, classical, and jazz – as well as other cultural events take place each year. Examples include theOulu Music Video Festival,theAir Guitar World Championships,and theMusixineMusic Film Competition, all in August. In July, the annual rock festivalQstocktakes place. The Oulu Music Festival is held in winter and the Oulunsalo Music Festival in summer.The Irish Festival of Oulutakes place each October, and theInternational Children's Film Festivaleach November.

Museums in Oulu include theNorthern Ostrobothnia museum,theOulu Museum of Art(OMA), theTietomaascience center,and theTurkansaariopen-air museum.

Notable statues and sculptures in Oulu include asculpture of Frans Michael FranzénandThe Bobby at the Market Placestatue.

Finlands' Eurovision representatives 2021 rock bandBlind Channelare from Oulu. They placed 6th in the competition.

Kalmahis a melodic death metal-band from Oulu that formed in 1998.

Food

[edit]

In the 1980s,rössypottu,salmonsoupandsweet cheese(juhannusjuusto) were named Oulu's traditional parish dishes.[55]

Sights

[edit]
Rotuaaripedestrian zone
Oulu Market Hall
Uusi Seurahuonerestaurant on the Ahtisaari Square

Churches

[edit]
Oulu Cathedral

Other points of interest

[edit]

Transport

[edit]
Finnairis one of the main operators of theOulu airportwith regular flights toHelsinki.

Oulu is served byOulu Airport,the second largest airport in Finland by passenger volume. It is located 15 kilometres (9 mi) south-west of the city centre.

ThePort of Ouluis one of the busiestharbourson theBothnian Bay.It includes four separate harbour areas: Vihreäsaari oil and bulk docks, Nuottasaari docks and Oritkari docks. There is also a ferry service in Oulu, which is mostly used betweenOulunsaloand theHailuoto Island.[56]

The shortest travel time fromOulu railway stationtoHelsinki Central railway stationis 5 h 34 min, operated byVR.Other destinations includeKolari,Rovaniemi,SeinäjokiandTampere.

The most important road in Oulu isHighway 4(E8/E75) that runs from Helsinki toUtsjokiviaLahti,Jyväskylä,Oulu,KemiandRovaniemi.Otherhighwaysrunning to and from Oulu are Highway 20 toKuusamoandHighway 22toKajaani.[57]

Oulu Bus Station

Oulu is notable for its transportation network dedicated to non-motor vehicular traffic, including pedestrians andbicycles(termed "light" traffic in Finland). In 2022, the city contained more than 950 kilometres (590 mi) of pathways and more than 300 underpasses and bridges devoted exclusively to pedestrian and bicycle traffic. The network is used year-round. The ratio of walking and cycling traffic pathways to residents is the highest in Finland and the cycling mode share is 20 percent.[58][59][60]

Parked bicycles on Kirkkokatu Street in January

Even in winter, bicycle commuting remains strong in Oulu, in spite of the cold, dark, and snow. About 12% of winter trips are by bicycle, and about half of trips to school or university are. The city has a robust system for keeping bike paths maintained and clear of snow, and bike paths and lanes are plowed before roadways to encourage such human-scale winter transit in the city where 12% already do so.[61]The Winter Cycling Federation was founded in Oulu in 2013, and the first Winter Cycling Congress was held there.[62]

In 2015, a large underground parking facility, Kivisydän (Stone Heart), opened in the city center directly beneath main shopping streets. The network of parallel roads for cars and pedestrians was drilled in the rock at the depth of 30 meters (98 ft). The parking facility includes two ramps, 900 visitor parking lots (expandable to 1500), six access points to the ground served by 19 elevators (expandable to nine and 25), a service facility for commercial delivery vehicles, andubi-screens that guide the driver to the selected ground access point and help locate the parked car by its license number.[63][64]

Solar power

[edit]

In 2015, theKaleva Mediaprinting plant in Oulu became the most powerful photovoltaic solar plant in Finland, with 1,604 solar photovoltaic (PV) units on its roof. Although the city of Oulu, located near theArctic Circle,has only two hours of weak sunlight in December, the photovoltaic cells work almost around the clock in the summer. The cold climate means the PV panels can get up to a 25% boost per hour, as they don't overheat.[65]

Because the sun is quite low in the sky at this latitude, vertical PV installations are popular on the sides of buildings. These solar walls also capture light reflected from snow.[65]

Snow is not necessarily cleared from rooftop solar installations.[65]

The local utility, Oulun Energia, is owned by the city of Oulu. Theenergy mixit receives from the Nordic-wide grid includes wood pellets, waste incineration, bioenergy, hydro-electric, geothermal, wind, nuclear, peat, natural gas and coal.[65]

Sports

[edit]
Kärpätwins the Finnish championship in 2005 after beatingJokerit.
Oulun LuistinseurabeatJyväskylän Seudun Palloseurain the 2014 Finland men's national bandy championship final at theRaksila Artificial Ice Rink Pakkalan kenttä.

Ice hockeyis the most popular spectator sport in Oulu. The local clubKärpäthas won theSM-liigachampionship title eight times (1981,2004,2005,2007,2008,2014,2015and2018). It has also twice been the runner-up in theIIHF European Champions Cup,in2005and in2006.

InfootballAC Ouluplays inVeikkausliiga,the premier division of Finnish football. So farOPShas claimed the Finnish football championship only twice by winningMestaruussarjain1979and in1980.Other notable football clubs includeOLS,OTPandJS Hercules.

Oulu has one well-knownbandyclub,OLS,which plays inBandyliigaand has becomeFinnish champions14 times, most recently in 2014. The other bandy club,OPS,with its 7 championships and a bronze medal as late as in 2009, announced it would be closing down after the 2009–10 season. In2001the city was the main venue for theBandy World Championship.

Oulu is also home to several other sports clubs such asOulu Northern Lights(American football),Oulun NMKY(Basketball),Oulun Lippo(Pesäpallo),Oulun Pyrintö(Track and field),SK Pohjantähti(Orienteering)),OYUS(Rugby union),Oulu Irish Elks(Gaelic football) andETTA(Volleyball).

Oulun Tervahiihtois an annual ski marathon event held since 1889.

Terwa Run & Marathon is an annual running event held since 1989 in late May.

A formermotorcycle speedwaytrack known as the Iinat Motor Sports Center was located north of the Pirttilammentie and east of the Iinatintie (64°57′31″N25°34′23″E/ 64.95861°N 25.57306°E/64.95861; 25.57306).[66]The Center opened in 1979 and hosted many events, including the Finnish Final, as part of the qualifying round of theSpeedway World Championshipin 1983.[67][68]

Education

[edit]
University of Oulumain building.

TheUniversity of OuluandOulu University of Applied Scienceshave their main campuses located in Oulu.

Oulu is home to the most northerly architecture school in the world. The school is best known for its strong regionalistic ideas for developing architecture. This movement is named "the Oulu school" ( "Oulun koulu" ) of architecture.[citation needed]

Oulu Vocational College has over 13 000 students. It houses several different study subjects in different units which are spread over Oulu and neighbouring municipalities. Oulu Vocational College School of Business Studies is one of the few vocational schools which has game programming in its curriculum.

Oulu International Schoolis one of nine schools in Finland offering basic education in English. There's also a Swedish-speaking private school (SwedishSvenska Privatskolan i Uleåborg) for students up until high school. The school is the northernmost Swedish-speaking school in Finland.[69]

Notable people

[edit]

International relations

[edit]
See also:List of twin towns and sister cities in Finland

Twin towns and sister cities

[edit]

Oulu istwinnedwith:[70]

Oulu also maintains relationships with cities twinned toformer municipalitiesmergedwith Oulu in 2013:[70]

Partnership and twinning cities

[edit]

In addition Oulu has eight 'Partnership & Twinning cities':[75]

International municipal projects

[edit]

The educational department was a part of theLifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 in Finland.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Statistics Finland classifies a person as having a "foreign background" if both parents or the only known parent were born abroad.[48]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ab"Discover Oulu".Finland Convention Bureau.Retrieved14 March2024.
  2. ^Oulu – Capital of Northern Scandinavia
  3. ^"Area of Finnish Municipalities 1.1.2018"(PDF).National Land Survey of Finland.Retrieved30 January2018.
  4. ^Tarkoma, Jari (2008-01-15)."Taajamissa asuu 84 prosenttia väestöstä".Tiedote(in Finnish). Statistics Finland (Tilastokeskus).Retrieved11 February2013.
  5. ^"Population growth biggest in nearly 70 years".Population structure. Statistics Finland. 2024-04-26.ISSN1797-5395.Retrieved2024-04-29.
  6. ^"Population growth biggest in nearly 70 years".Population structure. Statistics Finland. 2024-04-26.ISSN1797-5395.Retrieved2024-04-29.
  7. ^"Population according to age (1-year) and sex by area and the regional division of each statistical reference year, 2003–2020".StatFin.Statistics Finland.Retrieved2 May2021.
  8. ^ab"Luettelo kuntien ja seurakuntien tuloveroprosenteista vuonna 2023".Tax Administration of Finland. 14 November 2022.Retrieved7 May2023.
  9. ^"Oulu".The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(5th ed.). HarperCollins.Retrieved10 May2019.
  10. ^"Oulu".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Retrieved10 May2019.
  11. ^Saylor, Michael (2012).The Mobile Wave: How Mobile Intelligence Will Change Everything.Perseus Books/Vanguard Press. p.63.ISBN9781593157203.
  12. ^"QS World University Rankings for Computer Science and Information Systems 2022".
  13. ^Bachelor of Engineering, Information Technology – OAMK
  14. ^Oulu Innovation Alliance
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