Pactomania

Truman signing the North Atlantic Treaty

Pactomaniais a term originally created to describe the period between 1945 and 1955, during which theUnited Statesconcluded or ratified a significant amount of alliances, treaties, and pacts. The word "Pactomania" was first used in aThe New York Timesarticle in 1955.

FollowingWorld War II,the US abandonedits previous policy of isolationismand embracedinternationalism,occupyingJapan,southernKorea,and zones inGermanyandAustria,hosting the newUnited Nations,International Monetary Fund,andWorld Bank,and establishing theUS dollaras the world'sreserve currencythrough theBretton Woods system.In terms of defense, the US initially supported the idea ofcollective securityby the fiveUN Security Councilpowers, with the US focused on the defense ofits sphere of influencein theWestern Hemispherethrough theOrganization of American Statesand the multilateralRio Pactsecurity alliance.

However, growing concerns over theSoviet Union'slarge military presenceand installation ofsatellite statesinEastern Europe,espionage activities within the US,andthe potential for the spread of communismin devastated Europe anddecolonizing nationsled to a shift inUS foreign policy.The inability of theUnited Kingdomto manage these issues, as evidenced by theGreek Civil WarandTurkish Straits crisis,prompted the US tobecome closely involved in Europeand adopt theTruman Doctrineofcontainingcommunism throughMarshall Planfinancial aid and the multilateralNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) security alliance.

In Asia,the US initially focused on the Acheson Line or "defense perimeter", which did not prioritize China, Korea, or Taiwan.However, thefall of Chinato communism and thesubsequent public outcryin the US led to a change in approach. The US became involved in theKorean Warand established a system of bilateral security alliances along the westernPacific Rim,often referred to as the "hub-and-spoke system",including alliances withJapan,South Korea,Taiwan,and thePhilippines,as well asAustralia and New Zealand.Additionally, the multilateralSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO) security alliance was formed inSoutheast Asia.The multilateralMiddle East Treaty Organization(METO) security alliance, intended to fight communism in theMiddle East,ended up never being joined by the United States due to "thepro-Israel lobby".

The alliances formed during Pactomania have played a pivotal role in the modern era, from theVietnam Warto theRussian invasion of Ukraine.Today, many of the alliances formed during Pactomania remain today, although SEATO, METO, and the US-Taiwan alliance have been dissolved. Despite the dissolution of SEATO, its underlying collective defense treaty remains in force, and forms the basis of the US-Thailandmutual security alliance.Similarly, in spite of the 1979 dissolution of the US-Taiwan alliance, the US retains significant military relations with Taiwan through theTaiwan Relations Act.

End of isolationism

Prior to this bout of "Pactomania" the United States was described by historians asinterventionistin the case of world affairs, butisolationistin the case of alliances. It is often argued by political scientists such asBear Braumoellerthat the US used other methods, particularly financial, to exert its influence over the world. Meanwhile, it avoided outside alliances, treaties, and pacts.Engaging with other countries’ affairs was discouraged inGeorge Washington'sfarewell addressand theMonroe Doctrine.It had been followed in American foreign policy, with the exception of the world wars. As the Cold War divided the world into two, both theSoviet Unionand the United States sought to grow their alliances.

John Foster Dulles

Main article:John Foster Dulles

John Foster Dulles was the Secretary of State to PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower,and a senator for a brief period.Due to his values and experience from his career in law, he believed in the advantages of treaties to fightcommunistforces in theCold War.He employed this strategy throughout his career such as in 1945, helping create theUN Charter,and in 1954, theSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO) and theMiddle East Treaty Organization(METO).Dulles also proposed the creation of aNortheast Asia Treaty Organization(NEATO), which was shelved in favor of bilateral alliances with the concerned states.Before his death, he contributed to the creation of theEisenhower Doctrine.Dulles demonstrated the importance of treaties to United States foreign policy.

Significant alliances and events

United Nations (1945)

Main article:United Nations

One of the biggest alliances was the creation of the United Nations, an international organization created at the end ofWorld War II,to promote peace and curtail war. It was made to replace theLeague of Nations.Former United StatesPresident Woodrow Wilsonhelped found the League after theFirst World War,but it was never joined by the US.

PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltproposed the idea of the UN to Soviet PremierJoseph Stalinin November 1943. It was jointly discussed with and proposed by China, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The Declaration of the United Nations was crafted in 1942 at theArcadia Conference,but the organization was officially created with the signing of the UN Charter in 1945. Both of these events took place in US cities.At the time the UN was founded, US President Harry Truman's aim was to increase America's participation in international organizations,which is why it was one of the founding members, and the first country to ratify the Charter.Through the creation of the UN Charter, six smaller organizations, called "organs"were created to handle separate affairs:

• General Assembly
• Economic and Social Council
• Trusteeship council
• International Court of Justice
• Secretariat

Rio Pact (1947)

Main article:Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance

Rio Pact

The idea to create this treaty, also known as theRio Treaty,had been discussed since the late 1930s when the leaders of the Americas met in several South American cities. However, the countries could not agree due to hesitance from the US and Uruguay. When Senator Vandenburg publicly espoused the idea in a 1947 speech, and the Senate accepted it, nations could sign the Treaty inRio de Janeiro.Initially, there were 20 members to the Rio Treaty: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela.In 1964, Cuba was suspended, due to its support of communism.

The purpose of the treaty was that in the event of an attack on a member, the other would be obliged to come to their defense, on request.Nowadays, aside from the occasional implementation, such as the US request for support after the9/11 attacks,the treaty has fallen into disuse.The Rio Pact influenced the creation of the Vandenburg Resolution, and then, theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO).

Marshall Plan (1948)

Main article:Marshall Plan

In the wake of World War II, several European countries were considered to be in shambles with their economies collapsed. Cities were not able to produce enough goods to trade with resource-producing areas and unable to feed their citizens. The Soviet Union took control of Eastern Europe, which threatened Western Europe.

The "Marshall Plan"was suggested by US Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947. The intention was for the US to provide financially for Europe to rebuild its economic infrastructure. It would also help prevent further communist expansion by the Soviets.

Vandenburg Resolution (1948)

Arthur H. Vandenburg

Arthur H. Vandenburg was aRepublicanSenator,a former candidate for presidential nominee, and an avid supporter ofmultilateralism.The Vandenburg Resolution was created in 1948, after the Rio Treaty and Marshall Plan. These previous agreements, supported by the Vandenburg Resolution, gave the US the idea to create a similar collective defense agreement with Europe to prevent Soviet control. It pushed the country to create NATO and demonstrated the importance of international agreements to the country.Vandenburg's draft resolution was introduced to the Senate on June 11, 1948, where it was approved.

NATO (1948)

Main articles:NATOandNorth Atlantic Treaty

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a collective defense treaty that was created to maintain peace in the North Atlantic region. The treaty included a few features, but the most prominent was the aspect of collective defense.At the time, the US and European nations were worried about the expansion of the Soviet Union. A collective defense agreement would protect nations from being defenseless in the face of a Soviet invasion.The initial idea for the organization was suggested in the Vandenburg Resolution.In 1948, the US, the UK, and Canada, began to brainstorm NATO. 12 members signed the treaty in 1949 inWashington, DC,United States.

ANZUS (1951)

Main article:ANZUS

ANZUS,signed in 1951 between Australia, New Zealand, and the US, was not considered a mutual defense treaty, but was more akin to "mutual aid". Similar to the other treaties in the period of Pactomania, ANZUS was a collective security treaty, where in the event of an attack on one of the members, the conflict would be settled by peaceful means.

The US deemed the idea unnecessary until the three nations shared their concerns regarding the spread of communism.The idea for the alliance was proposed by the US toward Australia, and was extended to New Zealand.

The alliance has never been formally concluded, but in 1984, when New Zealand bannednuclear weapons,the United States cut ties, treaty-wise, with New Zealand.

Treaty of Peace with Japan and US-Japan Security Treaty (1951)

Main articles:Treaty of San Francisco,Security Treaty between the United States and Japan,U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement,andTreaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan

Treaty of Peace with Japan

TheJapanese Peace Treatywas created after World War II to end hostilities with Japan. It also settled some land disputes with China, Japan, the Soviet Union, and the United States, and compensate people who were harmed in the war. However, it did not guarantee that foreign military occupation would leave Japan. It was signed inSan Francisco,California, United States on September 8, 1951.Shortly after that, the US and Japan created a mutual security treaty.

US-Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty (1951)

Main article:Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)

This treaty was made to maintain peace in the Philippines and surrounding Pacific region.It is a bilateral defense agreement, denoting that if either of the nations were to be put in danger, the other would be allowed to use military force to come to their aid. The US and the Philippines have been allies and maintained the treaty since it was created. It is one of the longest-lasting mutual defense treaties in the world.

Republic of Korea Treaty (1953)

Main article:Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–South Korea)

The Republic of Korea Treaty is a bilateral defense agreement between the US and South Korea. Similar to ANZUS, if either of the members faced conflict, the other would defend them using peaceful methods, including defensive military approaches. The treaty was signed in 1953 following theKorean War.The purpose is to offer South Korea protection from the two nations’ common enemy, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK).

SEATO (1954)

Main articles:Southeast Asia Treaty OrganizationandThanat–Rusk communiqué

SEATO member countries map

The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), also known as the Manila Pact, was a defense treaty made between several countries inside and outside of Southeast Asia. Its purpose was to protect against the spread of communism in Southeast Asia and to help improve conditions in the region.The original members included the United States, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, and Thailand. There are also "observer" countries, who were still protected under the pact, but could not influence it in other ways.

The organization was officially created inManila,Philippines in 1955, hence the name.Its headquarters were located inBangkok,Thailand. SEATO split in 1977.

Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty (1954)

Main article:Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of China

A mutual defense alliance between the US andTaiwanexisted from 1955 until its unilateral nullification by PresidentJimmy Carterin 1979 as the US recognized the communist mainland. TheUS Supreme Courtaffirmed the president's right to nullify the treaty inGoldwater v. Carter.Following its nullification, the treaty was supplanted by theTaiwan Relations Act,passed by Congress in 1979.

METO (1955)

Main article:Central Treaty Organization

The Middle East Treaty Organization (METO), also known as the Baghdad Pact, was a mutual security treaty to contribute to peace in the Middle East.The US produced the idea for the pact,but remained an observer to it for the duration of the pact's existence.The title of the treaty has been changed from METO and was relocated and renamed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) after tensions between the organization andArab states,particularly Iraq.After the overthrowing of theShahin theIranian Revolution,CENTO ended in 1979.

See also

• Cold War
• Soviet Union
• George Marshall
• John Foster Dulles
• Arthur Vandenberg
• Harry Truman
• Dwight Eisenhower
• United Nations
• Rio Treaty
• Marshall Plan
• Vandenberg resolution
• NATO
• US-Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty
• Treaty of San Francisco
• US-Japan Security Alliance
• ANZUS
• Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–South Korea)
• SEATO
• NEATO
• METO