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Parasites in fiction

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Parasitesby Katrin Alvarez. Oil on canvas, 2011

Parasitesappear frequently inbiology-inspired fictionfrom ancient times onwards, with a flowering in the nineteenth century.[1]These include intentionally disgusting[2]alien monsters inscience fictionfilms, often with analogues in nature. Authors and scriptwriters have, to some extent, exploited parasite biology: lifestyles includingparasitoid,behaviour-altering parasite,brood parasite,parasitic castrator,and many forms ofvampireare found in books and films.[2][3][4][5]Some fictional parasites, likeCount DraculaandAlien'sXenomorphs,have become well known in their own right.

Context[edit]

Parasitismin nature is a biological relationship in which one species lives on or in another, causing it harm.
Further information:Parasite

Inevolutionary biology,parasitismis arelationshipbetweenspecies,where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, thehost,causing it some harm, and isadaptedstructurally to this way of life.[6]TheentomologistE. O. Wilsonhas characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one".[7]According to the immunologist John Playfair, the term 'parasite' is distinctly derogatory in common usage, where a parasite is "a sponger, a lazy profiteer, a drain on society".[8]The idea is however much older. In ancient Rome, theparasituswas anaccepted role in Roman society,in which a person could live off the hospitality of others, in return for "flattery, simple services, and a willingness to endure humiliation".[9][10]

Motifs[edit]

Nineteenth century novels[edit]

Bela Lugosias thevampireCount Dracula,1931

Parasitism featured repeatedly as a literary motif in the nineteenth century, though the mechanisms, biological or otherwise, are not always described in detail.[11]For example, the eponymous Beetle inThe BeetlebyRichard Marsh,1897, is parasitic and symbolically castrates the human protagonist.[11]Bram Stoker's 1897Draculastarts out as an apparently human host, welcoming guests to his home, before revealing his parasiticvampirenature.Conan Doyle's Parasite, in his 1894 bookThe Parasite,makes use of a form of mind control similar to themesmerismof theVictorian era;it works on some hosts but not others.[12]

Science fiction[edit]

Parasites, represented asextraterrestrial aliensor unnatural[13]beings, are seen inscience fictionas distasteful,[13]in contrast to (mutualistic) symbiosis, and sometimes horrible.[13]Practical uses can be made of them, but humans who do so may be destroyed by them.[13]For example,Mira Grant's 2013 novelParasiteenvisages a world where people'simmune systemsare maintained bygenetically engineeredtapeworms.[14]They form readily understood[13]characters, since, as Gary Westfahl explains, parasites need to exploit their hosts tosurvive and reproduce.[13]

The social anthropologist Marika Moisseeff argues thatHollywoodscience fiction favours insects asvillaincharacters because of their parasitism and their swarming behaviour. Such films, she continues, depict the war of culture and nature as "an unending combat between humanity and insect-like extraterrestrial species that tend to parasitize human beings in order to reproduce."[4]

Range[edit]

Among the many types of fictional parasite are themitochondriaofParasite Eve;these are energy-generating organelles in animal cells, imagined as parasitic.

The range of accounts of fictional parasites and the media used to describe them have greatly increased since the nineteenth century, spanning among other things literary novels, science fiction novels and films,horror films,andvideo games.[11][3][5][15]The table illustrates the variety of themes and approaches that have become possible.

Examples of the range of accounts of fictional parasites and their biological counterparts
Author Work Medium Date Parasite Effect Biological counterpart
David Cronenberg Shivers Science fictionbody horror film 1975 Genetically engineered Useful inorgan transplants;sexually transmittedandaphrodisiacwhen modified by a deranged scientist Genetic engineeringand its ethical implications[16]
Metroid Video game 1986 X Parasite Deadlyinfection;confers useful energy and powers to vaccinated people Pathogenssuch asbacteria,viruses;vaccines[15][17]
Hideaki Sena(pharmacologist) Parasite Eve Science fictionhorror novel 1995 Mitochondria cut free from mutualism in human cells Deadly parasitism Mitochondria,power-generatingorganelles,formerly free-livingprokaryoticorganisms, becamemutualisticbysymbiogenesisc. 2 billion years ago[18][19][20]
Irvine Welsh Filth Novel 1998 Talking tapeworm Sinister, comic;[21]"the most attractive character in the novel"; becomes thesociopathicpoliceman'salter egoand better self.[22] Tapeworms,intestinal parasites[22]

Fiction and reality[edit]

Emerald cockroach wasp(left) "walking" a paralyzedcockroachto its burrow

Kyle Munkittrick, on theDiscovermagazinewebsite, writes that the great majority of aliens, far from being as strange as possible, arehumanoid.[23]Ben Guarino, inThe Washington Post,observes that despite all the "cinematic aliens' gravid grotesquerie",[2]earthly parasites have more horrible[2]ways of life. Guarino cites parasitic wasps that lay their eggs inside living caterpillars, inspiringA. E. Van Vogt's 1939 story "Discord in Scarlet",Robert Heinlein's 1951 novelThe Puppet Masters,and Ridley Scott's 1979 filmAlien.[2]The eponymous Alien has a "dramatic"[2]life-cycle. Giant eggs hatch into face-huggers that grasp the host's mouth, forcing him to swallow an embryo. It rapidly grows in his intestines, soon afterwards erupting from his chest and growing into a gigantic predatory animal resembling an insect. Guarino cites the parasitologist Michael J. Smout as saying that the "massive changes"[2]are feasible, giving the example offlatwormsthat transform from an egg to a tadpole-like form to an infective worm.[2]The biologist Claude dePamphilis agrees, too, that parasites can acquiregenesfrom their hosts, giving as example abroomrapeplant that had taken up genes from its host on 52 occasions, having thoroughly overcome the host plant's defences. They suggest further themes for future science fiction films, includingemerald jewel waspsthat turncockroachesintosubservient puppets,able to crawl but unable to act independently; or thebarnacle-like crustaceans thatcastrate their crab hosts,or grow into their brains, altering their behaviour to care for the young barnacles.[2]All the same, a 2013 poll of scientists and engineers byPopular Mechanicsmagazine revealed that the parasite-based science fiction filmsThe War of the Worlds(Byron Haskin,1953) andAlienwere among their top ten favourites.[24]

Types of parasite[edit]

Robert A. Heinlein'sbehaviour-alteringThe Puppet Masterson the cover of the September 1951 issue ofGalaxy Science Fiction
Further information:Parasitism § Major strategies

Several types of parasite, corresponding more or less accurately to some of those known in biology, are found in literature.[25]These include haematophagic parasites (fictional vampires), parasitoids, behaviour-altering parasites, brood parasites, parasitic castrators, and trophically transmitted parasites, as detailed below.

Haematophagic parasite[edit]

Further information:Vampire

In ancient times, myths of blood-drinking demons were widespread, includingLilithwho feasted on the blood of babies.[26]

Fictionalvampires—haematophagicparasites—began in the modern era withCount Dracula,thetitle characterofBram Stoker's 1897gothic horrornovelDracula,and have since appeared in many books and films ranging from horror to science fiction. Along with the shift in genres went a diversification of life-forms and life-cycles, including blood-drinking plants like the "strange orchid" inThe Thing from Another World,aliens likeH. G. Wells's Martians inThe War of the Worlds,"cyber-vamps" like "The Stainless Steel Leech"and"Marid and the Trail of Blood",and psychic bloodsuckers, as inArthur Conan Doyle'sThe ParasiteandRobert Wiene's 1920 filmThe Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.[12][27]

Parasitoid[edit]

Further information:Parasitoid
A 1990sgargoyleatPaisley Abbeyresembling aXenomorph[28]parasitoidfromAlien[29]

TheXenomorphinAlienis aparasitoid,inevitably fatal to its human host. It has a life-cycle stage that grows inside the person's body; when mature, the predatory adult Xenomorph bursts out, killing the host. This behaviour was inspired byparasitoid waspswhich have just such a life-cycle.[25][30][31]

The molecular biologist Alex Sercel compares Xenomorph biology to that of parasitoid wasps andnematomorph worms,arguing that there is a close match.[30]Sercel notes that the way the Xenomorph grasps a human's face to implant its embryo is comparable to the way a parasitoid wasp lays its eggs in a living host. He compares the Xenomorph life cycle to that of the nematomorphParagordius tricuspidatus,which grows to fill its host's body cavity before bursting out and killing it.[30]

The marine biologist Alistair Dove writes that there are multiple parallels between Xenomorphs and parasitoids, though there are in his view more disturbing life cycles in real biology.[32]He identifies parallels include the placing of an embryo in the host; its growth in the host; the resulting death of the host; andalternating generations,as in theDigenea(trematodes).[32]

Behaviour-altering parasite[edit]

Further information:Behaviour-altering parasiteandHuman possession in science fiction

Mind-controlling parasites feature in twentieth century science fiction. InRobert A. Heinlein's 1951The Puppet Masters,slug-like parasites from outer space arrive on Earth, fasten to people's backs and seize control of their nervous systems,making their hosts the eponymous puppets.[1]InStar Trek II: The Wrath of Khan,the Ceti eel tunnels into the ear of its human host until it reaches the brain. This is abehaviour-altering parasiteanalogous toToxoplasma gondii,which causes infected mice to become unafraid of cats. This makes them easier to catch and consume and, once an infected mouse has been eaten, the parasite will then infect the cat, itsdefinitive host,in which it can reproduce sexually.[25]TheGoa'uldinStargate SG-1enters through the host's neck and coils around the host's spine, assuming control.[25][33] The Slug/Squid alien inThe Hiddensimilarly enters via the host's mouth before taking over its body.[33]

Brood parasite[edit]

Brood parasiteslay their eggs in other birds' nests for them to raise, inspiring thescience fictionnovelThe Midwich Cuckoos.
Further information:Brood parasite

Brood parasitismis not a common theme in fiction. An early example wasJohn Wyndham's 1957 novelThe Midwich Cuckoos,which sees the women of an English village give birth to and then bring up a group of alien children. The aliens are telepathic, and intend to take over the world. In nature, brood parasitism occurs in birds such as theEuropean cuckoo,which lay their eggs in the nests of their hosts. The young cuckoos hatch quickly and eject the host's eggs or chicks; the host parents then feed the young cuckoos as if they were their own offspring, until they fledge. As a plot device, this allows aliens and humans to interact closely.[13][34][35]A somewhat similar approach is taken inOctavia E. Butler's 1987–1989Lilith's Brood,but the offspring born to the human mother there is an alien-human hybrid rather than simply an alien.[36][37]

Parasitic castrator[edit]

Sacculina,aparasitic castrator(highlighted), inspired Philip Fracassi's novella of that name.
Further information:Parasitic castrator

Parasitic castrationis found in nature in greatly reduced parasites that feed on the gonads of theircrabhosts, making use of the energy that would have gone into reproduction. It is seen in fiction inPhilip Fracassi's 2017 horror novellaSacculina,named fora genus of barnacle-like crustaceanswith this lifestyle.[38][39]It tells the tale of a chartered fishing boat, far from home, that is overrun by parasites from the deep.[40]

Trophically-transmitted parasite[edit]

Pork tapeworm,anintestinal parasitetransmitted via humanfaecesto pigs, and back to humans via inadequately-cooked meat
Further information:Tapeworm,Parasite (Grant novel),andFilth (novel) § The Tapeworm

The genetically engineered tapeworm in Mira Grant's novelParasite,and the talking tapeworm in Irvine Welsh's novelFilth,are fictional versions of conventional intestinal parasites.[14][22]Tapewormshave complex life-cycles, often involving two or more hosts of different species, and are transmitted as the eggs are passed infaecesand eaten by another host, only for the host to be eaten, passing the parasite on to the predator.[41]The unattractive lifecycle allows the novelists to exploit their readers' emotional reactions to the parasites. The parasite in Welsh's novel has been described as a "kind of sinister but strangely comic element".[21]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ab"Parasitism and Symbiosis".The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction.10 January 2016.
  2. ^abcdefghiGuarino, Ben (19 May 2017)."Disgusting 'Alien' movie monster not as horrible as real things in nature".The Washington Post.
  3. ^abGlassy, Mark C. (2005).The Biology of Science Fiction Cinema.McFarland.pp. 186 ff.ISBN978-1-4766-0822-8.
  4. ^abMoisseeff, Marika (23 January 2014)."Aliens as an Invasive Reproductive Power in Science Fiction".HAL Archives-Ouvertes:239.
  5. ^abWilliams, Robyn; Field, Scott (27 September 1997)."Behaviour, Evolutionary Games and.... Aliens".Australian Broadcasting Corporation.Retrieved30 November2017.
  6. ^Poulin, Robert(2007).Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites.Princeton University Press.pp.4–5.ISBN978-0-691-12085-0.
  7. ^Wilson, Edward O.(2014).The Meaning of Human Existence.W. W. Norton & Company.p. 112.ISBN978-0-87140-480-0.Parasites, in a phrase, are predators that eat prey in units of less than one. Tolerable parasites are those that have evolved to ensure their own survival and reproduction but at the same time with minimum pain and cost to the host.
  8. ^Playfair, John (2007).Living with Germs: In health and disease.Oxford University Press.p. 19.ISBN978-0-19-157934-9.Playfair is comparing the popular usage to a biologist's view of parasitism, which he calls (heading the same page) "an ancient and respectable view of life".
  9. ^Matyszak, Philip (2017).24 Hours in Ancient Rome: A Day in the Life of the People Who Lived There.Michael O'Mara. p. 252.ISBN978-1-78243-857-1.
  10. ^Damon, Cynthia (1997). "5".The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman Patronage.University of Michigan Press.p. 148.ISBN978-0-472-10760-5.A satirist seeking to portray client misery naturally focuses on the relationship with the greatest dependency, that in which a client gets his food from his patron, and for this the prefabricated persona of the parasite proved itself extremely useful.
  11. ^abcJajszczok, Justyna (2017).The Parasite and Parasitism in Victorian Science and Literature(PDF).University of Silesia (dissertation).Retrieved10 June2018.
  12. ^abHutchison, Sharla; Brown, Rebecca A. (2015).Monsters and Monstrosity from the Fin de Siècle to the Millennium: New Essays.McFarland. pp. 2–12.ISBN978-1-4766-2271-2.
  13. ^abcdefgWestfahl, Gary (2005).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders.Greenwood Publishing.pp. 586–588.ISBN978-0-313-32952-4.
  14. ^abValentine, Genevieve (30 October 2013)."Medical Magic Leads To Terror In 'Parasite'".National Public Radio.Retrieved15 June2018.
  15. ^abLoguidice, Bill; Matt Barton (2014).Vintage Game Consoles: An Inside Look at Apple, Atari, Commodore, Nintendo, and the Greatest Gaming Platforms of All Time.CRC Press.p. 191.ISBN978-1-135-00651-8.
  16. ^Tate, Karl (24 May 2012)."Invasion of the Alien Space Parasites".LiveScience.Retrieved16 June2018.
  17. ^Hughes, Rob (3 April 2014)."SA-Xcellent".IGN.Archivedfrom the original on August 17, 2014.RetrievedJune 13,2014.
  18. ^Timmis, Jeremy N.; Ayliffe, Michael A.; Huang, Chun Y.; Martin, William (2004). "Endosymbiotic gene transfer: organelle genomes forge eukaryotic chromosomes".Nature Reviews Genetics.5(2): 123–135.doi:10.1038/nrg1271.PMID14735123.S2CID2385111.
  19. ^Taanman, Jan-Willem (1999). "The mitochondrial genome: structure, transcription, translation and replication".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics.1410(2): 103–123.doi:10.1016/S0005-2728(98)00161-3.PMID10076021.
  20. ^Lynch, Lisa (5 September 2001)."Tech Flesh 4: Mitochodrial Combustion at Club Parasite | An Interview With Hideaki Sena".CTheory journal. p. tf011.Retrieved16 June2018.
  21. ^abFord, Matt (11 September 2013)."Irvine Welsh: The 'unfilmable' Filth finally makes it to the big screen".The Independent.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-05-25.Retrieved17 June2018.
  22. ^abcMarren, Peter;Mabey, Richard(2010).Bugs Britannica.Chatto & Windus.pp. 34–36.ISBN978-0-7011-8180-2.
  23. ^Munkittrick, Kyle (12 July 2011)."The Only Sci-Fi Explanation of Hominid Aliens that Makes Scientific Sense".Discover Magazine.Retrieved16 June2018.
  24. ^Pappalardo, Joe (31 December 2013)."The 10 Best Sci-Fi Movies—As Chosen By Scientists".Popular Mechanics.Retrieved16 June2018.
  25. ^abcdPappas, Stephanie (29 May 2012)."5 Alien Parasites and Their Real-World Counterparts".LiveScience.
  26. ^Hurwitz, Siegmund (1992) [1980]. Gela Jacobson (trans.) (ed.).Lilith, the First Eve: Historical and Psychological Aspects of the Dark Feminine.Daimon Verlag.ISBN978-3-85630-522-2.
  27. ^Meehan, Paul (2014).The Vampire in Science Fiction Film and Literature.McFarland. pp. 209–.ISBN978-1-4766-1654-4.
  28. ^Budanovic, Nikola (10 March 2018)."An explanation emerges for how the 12th century Paisley Abbey in Scotland could feature a gargoyle out of the film" Alien "".The Vintage News.Retrieved17 June2018.
  29. ^"'Alien' gargoyle on ancient Paisley Abbey ".British Broadcasting Corporation.23 August 2013.Retrieved17 June2018.
  30. ^abcSercel, Alex (19 May 2017)."Parasitism in the Alien Movies".Signal to Noise Magazine.
  31. ^"The Making of Alien's Chestburster Scene".The Guardian.13 October 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 30 April 2010.Retrieved29 May2010.
  32. ^abDove, Alistair (9 May 2011)."This is clearly an important species we're dealing with".Deep Sea News.
  33. ^abElrod, P. N.; Conrad, Roxanne; Terry, Fran (2015).Help! The aliens have landed and taken over my brain.BenBella Books. pp. 59–72.ISBN978-1-941631-51-5.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  34. ^Adams, Stephen (4 January 2009)."Cuckoo chicks dupe foster parents from the moment they hatch".The Daily Telegraph.Archived fromthe originalon February 13, 2009.Retrieved17 June2018.
  35. ^Fromme, Alison (January 2018)."This Baby Bird Is a Mother's Nightmare".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon January 11, 2018.Retrieved17 June2018.
  36. ^Beshero-Bondar, Elisha (2 November 2017)."Science Fiction and Lilith's Brood".Slideshare.net.Retrieved26 July2018.
  37. ^Holden, Rebecca J. (1998). "The High Costs of Cyborg Survival: Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy".Foundation – The International Review of Science Fiction.72(Spring 1998): 49–57.
  38. ^Lafferty, Kevin D.; Armand M. Kuris (2009). "Parasitic castration: the evolution and ecology of body snatchers".Trends in Parasitology.25(12): 564–572.doi:10.1016/j.pt.2009.09.003.PMID19800291.
  39. ^Poulin, Robert(2007).Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites(2nd ed.). Springer. pp.106, 111–114.ISBN978-0-691-12084-3.
  40. ^"Sacculina by Philip Fracassi: A Gehenna Post Review".Gehenna and Hinnom Publishers. 28 September 2017.Retrieved16 June2018.
  41. ^"Parasites – Taeniasis".Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.10 January 2013.Retrieved17 June2018.
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