Glossary of ancient Roman religion

The vocabulary ofancient Roman religionwas highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on later juridical and religious vocabulary in Europe, particularly of theChristian Church.This glossary provides explanations of concepts as they were expressed inLatinpertaining toreligious practices and beliefs,with links to articles on major topics such as priesthoods, forms of divination, and rituals.

Fortheonyms,or the names andepithetsof gods, seeList of Roman deities.For public religious holidays, seeRoman festivals.For temples see theList of Ancient Roman temples.Individual landmarks of religioustopography in ancient Romeare not included in this list; seeRoman temple.

Glossary

A

abominari

The verbabominari( "to avert an omen", fromab-,"away, off," andominari,"to pronounce on an omen" ) was a term ofauguryfor an action that rejects or averts an unfavourable omen indicated by asignum,"sign". The noun isabominatio,from which English "abomination"derives. At the taking of formally solicited auspices (auspicia impetrativa), the observer was required to acknowledge any potentially bad sign occurring within thetemplumhe was observing, regardless of the interpretation.He might, however, take certain actions in order to ignore thesigna,including avoiding the sight of them, and interpreting them as favourable. The latter tactic required promptness, wit and skill based on discipline and learning.Thus the omen had no validity apart from the observation of it.

aedes

Theaedeswas the dwelling place of a god.It was thus a structure that housed the deity's image, distinguished from thetemplumor sacred district.Aedesis one of several Latin words that can be translated as "shrine" or "temple"; see alsodelubrumandfanum.For instance, theTemple of Vesta,as it is called in English, was in Latin anaedes.See also thediminutiveaedicula,a small shrine.

Ruins of theaedesof Vesta

In his workOn Architecture,Vitruviusalways uses the wordtemplumin the technical sense of a space defined throughaugury,withaedesthe usual word for the building itself.The design of a deity'saedes,he writes, should be appropriate to the characteristics of the deity. For a celestial deity such asJupiter,Coelus,SolorLuna,the building should be open to the sky; anaedesfor a god embodyingvirtus(valour), such asMinerva,Mars,orHercules,should beDoricand without frills; theCorinthian orderis suited for goddesses such asVenus,Flora,Proserpinaand theLymphae;and theIonicis a middle ground between the two forJuno,Diana,andFather Liber.Thus in theory, though not always in practice, architectural aesthetics had a theological dimension.

The wordaedilis(aedile),apublic official,is related byetymology;among the duties of the aediles was the overseeing ofpublic works,including the building and maintenance of temples.The temple(aedes)of Flora, for instance, was built in 241 BC by two aediles acting onSibylline oracles.Theplebeianaediles had their headquarters at theaedesofCeres.

ager

In religious usage,ager(territory, country, land, region) was terrestrial space defined for the purposes of augury in relation toauspicia.There were five kinds ofager:Romanus, Gabinus, peregrinus, hosticusandincertus.Theager Romanusoriginally included the urban space outside thepomeriumand the surrounding countryside.According toVarro,theager Gabinuspertained to the special circumstances of theoppidumofGabii,which was the first to sign a sacred treaty(pax)with Rome.Theager peregrinuswas other territory that had been brought under treaty(pacatus).Ager hosticusmeant foreign territory;incertus,"uncertain" or "undetermined," that is, not falling into one of the four defined categories.The powers and actions ofmagistrateswere based on and constrained by the nature of theageron which they stood, andagerin more general usage meant a territory as defined legally or politically. Theager Romanuscould not be extended outside Italy(terra Italia).

Altar(ara)fromRoman Spain

ara

The focal point of sacrifice was thealtar(ara,pluralarae). Most altars throughout the city of Rome and in the countryside would have been simple, open-air structures; they may have been located within a sacred precinct (templum), but often without anaedeshousing a cult image.An altar that received food offerings might also be called amensa,"table."

Perhaps the best-known Roman altar is the elaborate and Greek-influencedAra Pacis,which has been called "the most representative work ofAugustanart. "Other major public altars included theAra Maxima.

arbor felix

See also:Ficus Ruminalis

Some trees werefelixand othersinfelix.A tree(arbor)was categorized asfelixif it was under the protection of the heavenly gods(di superi).The adjectivefelixhere means not only literally "fruitful" but more broadly "auspicious".Macrobiuslistsarbores felices(plural) as the oak (four species thereof), the birch, the hazelnut, the sorbus, the white fig, the pear, the apple, the grape, the plum, the cornus and the lotus. The oak was sacred toJupiter,and twigs of oak were used by theVestalsto ignite the sacred fire in March every year. Also among thefeliceswere the olive tree, a twig of which was affixed to the hat of theFlamen Dialis,and the laurel and the poplar, which crowned theSalian priests.

Arbores infeliceswere those under the protection ofchthonicgods or those gods who had the power of turning away misfortune (avertentium). As listed byTarquitius Priscusin his lostostentariumon trees,these werebuckthorn,red cornel,fern,black fig,"those that bear a black berry and black fruit,"holly,woodland pear,butcher's broom,briar,andbrambles."

attrectare

The verbattrectare( "to touch, handle, lay hands on" ) referred in specialized religious usage to touching sacred objects while performing cultic actions.Attrectarehad a positive meaning only in reference to the actions of thesacerdotespopuli Romani( "priests of the Roman people" ). It had the negative meaning of "contaminate" (=contaminare)or pollute when referring to the handling of sacred objects by those not authorized, ordained, or ritually purified.

augur

An augur (Latin pluralaugures) was an official and priest who solicited and interpreted the will of the gods regarding a proposed action. The augur ritually defined atemplum,or sacred space, declared the purpose of his consultation, offered sacrifice, and observed the signs that were sent in return, particularly the actions and flight of birds. If the augur received unfavourable signs, he could suspend, postpone or cancel the undertaking (obnuntiatio). "Taking the auspices" was an important part of all major official business, including inaugurations, senatorial debates, legislation, elections and war, and was held to be an ancient prerogative ofRegalandpatricianmagistrates.Under theRepublic,this right was extended to other magistrates. After 300 BC,plebeianscould become augurs.

auguraculum

Thesolicitation of formal auspicesrequired the marking out of ritual space (auguraculum) from within which theaugursobserved thetemplum,including the construction of an augural tent or hut (tabernaculum). There were three such sites in Rome: on the citadel (arx), on theQuirinal Hill,and on thePalatine Hill.Festussaid that originally theauguraculumwas in fact thearx.It faced east, situating the north on the augur's left or lucky side.Amagistratewho was serving as a military commander also took daily auspices, and thus a part ofcamp-buildingwhile oncampaignwas the creation of atabernaculum augurale.This augural tent was the center of religious and legal proceedings within the camp.

augurium

Augurium(pluralauguria) is an abstract noun that pertains to theaugur.It seems to mean variously: the "sacral investiture" of the augur;the ritual acts and actions of the augurs;augural law(ius augurale);and recorded signs whose meaning had already been established.The word is rooted in theIEstem*aug-,"to increase," and possibly an archaic Latin neuter noun*augus,meaning "that which is full of mystic force." As the sign that manifests the divine will,theauguriumfor amagistratewas valid for a year; a priest's, for his lifetime; for a temple, it was perpetual.

The distinction betweenauguriumandauspiciumis often unclear.Auspiciais the observation of birds as signs of divine will, a practice held to have been established byRomulus,firstking of Rome,while the institution of augury was attributed to his successorNuma.ForServius,anauguriumis the same thing asauspicia impetrativa,a body of signs sought through prescribed ritual means.Some scholars thinkauspiciawould belong more broadly to themagistraciesand thepatreswhile theauguriumwould be limited to therex sacrorumand the major priesthoods.

Ancient sources record threeauguria:theaugurium salutisin which every year the gods were asked whether it wasfas(permissible, right) to ask for the safety of theRoman people(August 5); theaugurium canarium,a dog sacrifice (see alsosupplicia canum) to promote the maturation of grain crops, held in the presence of thepontiffsas well as the augurs "when ears of wheat have already formed but are still in the sheaths";and thevernisera auguriamentioned byFestus,which should have been a springtime propitiary rite held at the time of the harvest (auguria messalia).

auspex

Theauspex,pluralauspices,is a diviner who readsomensfrom the observed flight of birds (avi-,fromavis,"bird", with-spex,"observer", fromspicere). Seeauspiciafollowing andauspice.

auspicia

Theauspicia(au-=avis,"bird";-spic-,"watch" ) were originally signs derived from observing the flight of birds within thetemplumof the sky. Auspices are taken by anaugur.Originally they were the prerogative of thepatricians,but thecollegeof augurs was opened toplebeiansin 300 BC.Onlymagistrateswere in possession of theauspicia publica,with the right and duty to take the auspices pertaining to theRoman state.Favorable auspices marked a time or location as auspicious, and were required for important ceremonies or events, including elections, military campaigns and pitched battles.

According toFestus,there were five kinds ofauspiciato which augurs paid heed:ex caelo,celestial signs such as thunder and lightning;ex avibus,signs offered by birds;ex tripudiis,signs produced by the actions of certainsacred chickens;ex quadrupedibus,signs from the behavior of four-legged animals; andex diris,threatening portents.In official state augury at Rome, only the auspiciaex caeloandex avibuswere employed.

The taking of the auspices required ritual silence(silentium).Watching for auspices was calledspectioorservare de caelo.The appearance of expected signs resulted innuntiatio,or if they were unfavourableobnuntiatio.If unfavourable auspices were observed, the business at hand was stopped by the official observer, who declaredalio die( "on another day" ).

The practice of observing bird omens was common to many ancient peoples predating and contemporaneous with Rome, including the Greeks,Celts,and Germans.

auspicia impetrativa

Auspicia impetrativawere signs that were solicited under highly regulated ritual conditions (seespectioandservare de caelo) within thetemplum.The type of auspices required for convening public assemblies wereimpetrativa,andmagistrateshad the "right and duty" to seek these omens actively.These auspices could only be sought from anauguraculum,a ritually constructed augural tent or "tabernacle" (tabernaculum).Contrastauspicia oblativa.

auspicia maiora

The right of observing the "greater auspices" was conferred on aRoman magistrateholdingimperium,perhaps by aLex curiata de imperio,although scholars are not agreed on the finer points oflaw.Acensorhadauspicia maxima.It is also thought that theflamines maioreswere distinguished from theminoresby their right to take theauspicia maiora;seeFlamen.

auspicia oblativa

Signs that occurred without deliberately being sought through formalauguralprocedure wereauspicia oblativa.These unsolicited signs were regarded as sent by a deity or deities to express either approval or disapproval for a particular undertaking. The prodigy (prodigium) was one form of unfavourableoblativa.Contrastauspicia impetrativa.

auspicia privata

Private and domestic religion was linked to divine signs as state religion was. It was customary inpatricianfamilies to take theauspicesfor any matter of consequence such as marriages, travel, and important business.The scant information aboutauspicia privatain ancient authorssuggests that the taking of private auspices was not different in essence from that of public auspices: absolute silence was required,and the person taking the auspices could ignore unfavourable or disruptive events by feigning not to have perceived them.In matters pertaining to the family or individual, both lightningandexta(entrails)might yield signs forprivati,private citizens not authorized to take official auspices. Among his other duties, thePontifex Maximusadvisedprivatias well as the official priests about prodigies and their forestalling.By the time of Cicero, the taking of private auspices was falling into disuse.

averruncare

In pontifical usage, the verbaverruncare,"to avert," denotes a ritual action aimed at averting a misfortune intimated by an omen. Bad omens(portentaqueprodigiaquemala)are to be burnt, using trees that are in thetutelageof underworld or "averting" gods (seearbores infelicesabove).Varrosays that the god who presides over the action of averting isAverruncus.

B

bellum iustum

A "just war"was a war considered justifiable by the principles offetial law(ius fetiale).Because war could bring about religious pollution, it was in itselfnefas,"wrong," and could incur the wrath of gods unlessiustum,"just".The requirements for a just war were both formal and substantive. As a formal matter, thewar had to be declaredaccording to the procedures of theius fetiale.On substantive grounds, a war required a "just cause," which might includererum repetitio,retaliation against another people for pillaging, or a breach of or unilateral recession from a treaty; or necessity, as in the case of repelling an invasion.See alsoJus ad bellum.

C

caerimonia

The English word "ceremony" derives from the Latincaerimoniaorcaeremonia,a word of obscureetymologyfirst found in literature and inscriptions from the time ofCicero(mid-1st century BC), but thought to be of much greater antiquity. Its meaning varied over time. Cicero usedcaerimoniaat least 40 times, in three or four different senses: "inviolability" or "sanctity", a usage also ofTacitus;"punctilious veneration", in company withcura(carefulness, concern); more commonly in the pluralcaerimoniae,to mean "ritual prescriptions" or "ritual acts." The plural form is endorsed by Roman grammarians.

Hendrik Wagenvoortmaintained thatcaerimoniaewere originally the secret ritual instructions laid down byNuma,which are described asstatae et sollemnes,"established and solemn."These were interpreted and supervised by theCollege of Pontiffs,flamens,rex sacrorumand theVestals.Later,caerimoniaemight refer also to other rituals, including foreigncults.These prescribed rites "unite the inner subject with the external religious object", binding human and divine realms. The historianValerius Maximusmakes clear that thecaerimoniaerequire those performing them to attain a particular mental-spiritual state (animus,"intention" ), and emphasizes the importance ofcaerimoniaein the dedication and first sentence of his work. In Valerius's version of theGallic siege of Rome,the Vestals and theFlamen Quirinalisrescue Rome's sacred objects (sacra) by taking them toCaere;thus preserved, the rites take their name from the place.Although this etymology makes a meaningful narrative connection for Valerius,it is unlikely to be correct in terms of modern scientificlinguistics.AnEtruscan originhas sometimes been proposed. Wagenvoort thought thatcaerimoniaderived fromcaerus,"dark" in the sense of "hidden", hence meaning "darknesses, secrets."

In hisEtymologiae,Isidore of Sevillesays that the Greek equivalent isorgia,but derives the word fromcarendo,"lacking", and says that some thinkcaerimoniaeshould be used ofJewish observances,specifically thedietary lawthat requires abstaining from or "lacking" certain foods.

calator

Thecalatoreswere assistants who carried out day-to-day business on behalf of the senior priests of the state such as theflamines maiores.Acalatorwas apublic slave.Festusderives the word from the Greek verbkalein,"to call."

Augustus,capite velato

capite velato

At the traditional public rituals of ancient Rome, officiants prayed, sacrificed, offeredlibations,and practicedaugurycapite velato,"with the head covered" by a fold of thetogadrawn up from the back. This covering of the head is a distinctive feature of Roman rite in contrast withEtruscanpracticeorritus graecus,"Greek rite."In Roman art, the covered head is a symbol ofpietasand the individual's status as apontifex,auguror other priest.

It has been argued that the Roman expression of pietycapite velatoinfluencedPaul's prohibition against Christian men praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head."

carmen

In classical Latin,carmenusually means "song, poem, ode." Inmagico-religioususage, acarmen(pluralcarmina) is a chant,hymn,spell,or charm. In essence "a verbal utterance sung for ritualistic purposes", thecarmenis characterized by formulaic expression, redundancy, and rhythm.Fragments from two archaic priestly hymns are preserved, theCarmen Arvaleof the Arval Brethren and theCarmina Saliariaof theSalii.TheCarmen SaeculareofHorace,though self-consciously literary in technique, was also a hymn, performed by a chorus at theSaecular Gamesof 17 BC and expressing the Apollonian ideology ofAugustus.

Acarmen malumormaleficumis a potentially harmful magic spell. A fragment of theTwelve Tablesreadingsi malum carmen incantassit( "if anyone should chant an evil spell" ) shows that it was a longstanding concern of Roman law to suppress malevolent magic.Acarmen sepulchraleis a spell that evokes the dead from their tombs; acarmen veneficum,a "poisonous" charm.Through magical practice, the wordcarmencomes to mean also the object on which a spell is inscribed, hence acharmin the physical sense.

castus, castitas

Castusis an adjective meaning morally pure or guiltless (English "chaste" ), hence pious or ritually pure in a religious sense.Castitasis the abstract noun. Various etymologies have been proposed, among them two IE stems: *k'(e)stosmeaning "he who conforms to the prescriptions of rite"; or *kas-,from which derives the verbcareo,"I defice, am deprived of, have none..." i.e.vitia.In Roman religion, the purity of ritual and those who perform it is paramount: one who is correctly cleansed andcastusin religious preparation and performance is likely to please the gods. Ritual error is a pollutant; itvitiatesthe performance and risks the gods' anger.Castusandcastitasare attributes of thesacerdos(priest),but substances and objects can also be rituallycastus.

cinctus Gabinus

Thecinctus Gabinus( "Gabine cinch" ) was a way of wearing thetogathought to have originated in theLatintown ofGabii.It was also later claimedto have been part ofEtruscan priestly dress.The cinch allowed free use of both arms,essential when the toga was still worn during combat and later important in somereligious contexts,particularly those involving use of the toga to cover the head (capite velato).The style's ancient martial associations caused it to be worn during Romandeclarations of war.It was also used by the priest or official charged with guiding the plow creating thesulcus primigeniusduring the rituals attending the foundation of newcolonies.In Latin,cinctus Gabinuscould refer to the cinch itself or to the entire toga thus worn. In religious contexts, such a toga was also said to be wornritu Gabino( "in the Gabine rite" ).

clavum figere

Clavum figere( "to nail in, to fasten or fix the nail" ) was an expression that referred to the fixing or "sealing" of fate.A nail was one of the attributes of the goddessNecessitasand of the Etruscan goddess Athrpa (GreekAtropos). According toLivy,every year in the temple ofNortia,the Etruscan counterpart ofFortuna,a nail was driven in to mark the time. In Rome, the senior magistrateon the Ides of September drove a nail called theclavus annalis( "year-nail" )into the wall of theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.The ceremony occurred on thedies natalis( "birthday" or anniversary of dedication) of the temple, when a banquet for Jupiter(Epulum Jovis)was also held. The nail-driving ceremony, however, took place in atemplumdevoted toMinerva,on the right side of theaedesof Jupiter, because the concept of "number" was invented by Minerva and the ritual predated the common use of written letters.

The importance of this ritual is lost in obscurity, but in the early Republic it is associated with the appointment of adictator clavi figendi causa,"dictatorfor the purpose of driving the nail, "one of whom was appointed for the years 363, 331, 313, and 263 BC.Livy attributes this practice toreligio,religious scruple or obligation. It may be that in addition to an annual ritual, there was a "fixing" during times of pestilence or civil discord that served as apiaculum.Livy says that in 363, a plague had been ravaging Rome for two years. It was recalled that a plague had once been broken when a dictator drove a ritual nail, and the senate appointed one for that purpose.The ritual of "driving the nail" was among those revived and reformed by Augustus, who in 1 AD transferred it to the newTemple of Mars Ultor.Henceforth acensorfixed the nail at the end of his term.

collegium

Acollegium( "joined by law" ), pluralcollegia,was any association with alegal personality.The priestly colleges oversaw religious traditions, and until 300 BC onlypatricianswere eligible for membership. Whenplebeiansbegan to be admitted, the size of the colleges was expanded. By theLate Republic,threecollegiawielded greater authority than the others, with a fourth coming to prominence during the reign ofAugustus.The four great religious corporations (quattuor amplissima collegia) were:

• Pontifices,theCollege of Pontiffsheaded by thePontifex Maximus;
• Augures;
• Quindecimviri sacris faciundis,the fifteen priests in charge of theSibylline Books;
• Septemviri epulonum,the board of seven priests who organized public banquets for religious holidays.

Augustuswas a member of all fourcollegia,but limited membership for any othersenatorto one.

In Roman society, acollegiummight also be a trade guild or neighborhood association; seeCollegium (ancient Rome).

comitia calata

Thecomitia calata( "calate assemblies" ) were non-votingassemblies(comitia)called for religious purposes. The verbcalare,originally meaning "to call," was a technical term of pontifical usage, found also incalendae(Calends) andcalator.According toAulus Gellius,thesecomitiawere held in the presence of thecollege of pontiffsin order to inaugurate therex(thekingin theRegal Periodor therex sacrorumin theRepublic)or theflamines.Thepontifex maximusauspiciated and presided; assemblies over whichannually elected magistratespresided are nevercalata,nor are meetings for secular purposes or other elections even with a pontiff presiding.

Thecomitia calatawere organized bycuriaeorcenturiae.The people were summoned tocomitia calatato witness the reading of wills, or the oath by whichsacrawere renounced (detestatio sacrorum).They took no active role and were only present to observe as witnesses.

Mommsenthought the calendar abbreviationQRCF,given once asQ. Rex C. F.and taken asQuando Rex ComitiavitFas,designated a day when it was religiously permissible for therexto "call" for acomitium,hence thecomitia calata.

commentarii augurales

TheCommentaries of the Augurswere written collections probably of thedecretaandresponsaof thecollegeofaugurs.Some scholarship, however, maintains that thecommentariiwere preciselynotthedecretaandresponsa.The commentaries are to be distinguished from the augurs'libri reconditi,texts not for public use.The books are mentioned byCicero,Festus,andServius Danielis.Livyincludes several examples of the augurs'decretaandresponsain his history, presumably taken from thecommentarii.

commentarii pontificum

TheCommentaries of the Pontiffscontained a record of decrees and official proceedings of theCollege of Pontiffs.Priestly literature was one of the earliest written forms ofLatin prose,and included rosters, acts (acta), and chronicles kept by the variouscollegia,as well as religious procedure.It was oftenoccultum genus litterarum,an arcane form of literature to which by definition only priests had access. Thecommentarii,however, may have been available for public consultation, at least bysenators,because the rulings on points of law might be cited as precedent.The public nature of thecommentariiis asserted byJerzy Linderskiin contrast tolibri reconditi,the secret priestly books.

Thecommentariisurvive only through quotation or references in ancient authors.These records are not readily distinguishable from thelibri pontificales;some scholars maintain that the termscommentariiandlibrifor the pontifical writings are interchangeable. Those who make a distinction hold that thelibriwere the secret archive containing rules and precepts of theius sacrum(holy law), texts of spoken formulae, and instructions on how to perform ritual acts, while thecommentariiwere theresponsa(opinions and arguments) anddecreta(binding explications of doctrine) that were available for consultation. Whether or not the terms can be used to distinguish two types of material, the priestly documents would have been divided into those reserved for internal use by the priests themselves, and those that served as reference works on matters external to the college.Collectively, these titles would have comprised all matters of pontifical law, ritual, and cult maintenance, along withprayer formulariesand temple statutes.See alsolibri pontificalesandlibri augurales.

coniectura

Coniecturais the reasoned but speculative interpretation of signs presented unexpectedly, that is, ofnovae res,"novel information." These "new signs" are omens or portents not previously observed, or not observed under the particular set of circumstances at hand.Coniecturais thus the kind of interpretation used forostentaandportentaas constituting one branch of the "Etruscan discipline";contrastobservatioas applied to the interpretation offulgura(thunder and lightning) andexta(entrails). It was considered anars,a "method" or "art" as distinguished fromdisciplina,a formal body of teachings which required study or training.

Theoriginof the Latin wordconiecturasuggests the process of making connections, from the verbconicio,participleconiectum(con-,"with, together", andiacio,"throw, put" ).Coniecturawas also a rhetorical term applied to forms of argumentation, including court cases.The English word "conjecture"derives fromconiectura.

consecratio

Consecratiowas the ritual act that resulted in the creation of anaedes,a shrine that housed a cult image, or anara,an altar.Jerzy Linderskiinsists that theconsecratioshould be distinguished from theinauguratio,that is, the ritual by which theaugursestablished a sacred place (locus) ortemplum(sacred precinct).The consecration was performed by a pontiff reciting a formula from thelibri pontificales,the pontifical books.One component of consecration was thededicatio,or dedication, a form ofius publicum(public law) carried out by amagistraterepresenting the will of theRoman people.The pontiff was responsible for the consecration proper.

cultus

Cicero definedreligioascultus deorum,"the cultivation of the gods."The "cultivation" necessary to maintain a specific deity was that god'scultus,"cult," and required "the knowledge of giving the gods their due"(scientia colendorum deorum).The nouncultusoriginates from thepast participleof the verbcolo, colere, colui, cultus,"to tend, take care of, cultivate," originally meaning "to dwell in, inhabit" and thus "to tend, cultivateland(ager);to practice agriculture, "an activity fundamental to Roman identity even when Rome as a political center had become fully urbanized.Cultusis often translated as "cult",without the negative connotations the word may have in English, or with theAnglo-Saxonword "worship",but it implies the necessity of active maintenance beyond passive adoration.Cultuswas expected to matter to the gods as a demonstration of respect, honor, and reverence; it was an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion (do ut des).St. Augustineechoes Cicero's formulation when he declares that "religiois nothing other than thecultusofGod."

D

decretum

Decreta(plural) were the binding explications of doctrine issued by the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. They were preserved in written form and archived.Compareresponsum.

delubrum

Adelubrumwas a shrine.Varrosays it was a building that housed the image of adeus,"god",and emphasizes the human role in dedicating the statue.According to Varro,thedelubrumwas the oldest form of anaedes,a structure that housed a god. It is an ambiguous term for both the building and the surrounding areaubi aqua currit( "where water runs" ), according to the etymology of the antiquarianCincius.Festusgives the etymology ofdelubrumasfustem delibratum,"stripped stake," that is, a tree deprived of its bark(liber)by a lightning bolt, as such trees in archaic times were venerated as gods. The meaning of the term later extended to denote the shrine built to house the stake.Compareaedes,fanum,andtemplum.

Isidoreconnected thedelubrumwith the verbdiluere,"to wash", describing it as a "spring-shrine", sometimes with annexed pool, where people would wash before entering, thus comparable to a Christianbaptismal font.

detestatio sacrorum

When a person passed from onegensto another, as for instance byadoption,he renounced the religious duties(sacra)he had previously held in order to assume those of the family he was entering.The ritual procedure ofdetestatio sacrorumwas enacted before acalate assembly.

deus, dea, di, dii

Deus,"god";dea,"goddess", pluraldeae;diordii,"gods", plural, or "deities", of mixed gender. The Greek equivalent istheos,which the Romans translated withdeus.Serviussaysthatdeusordeais a "generic term"(generale nomen)for all gods.In his lost workAntiquitates rerum divinarum,assumed to have been based on pontifical doctrine,Varroclassifieddiiascerti, incerti, praecipuiorselecti,i.e. "deities whose function could be ascertained",those whose function was unknown or indeterminate, main or selected gods.Comparedivus.For etymological discussion, seeDeusandDyeus.See alsoList of Roman deities.

devotio

Thedevotiowas an extreme form ofvotumin which a Roman general vowed to sacrifice his own life in battle along with the enemy tochthonicdeities in exchange for a victory. The most extended description of the ritual is given byLivy,regarding the self-sacrifice ofDecius Mus.The English word "devotion"derives from the Latin. For anothervotumthat might be made in the field by a general, seeevocatio.

dies imperii

ARoman emperor'sdies imperiiwas the date on which he assumedimperium,that is, the anniversary of his accession as emperor. The date was observed annually with renewed oaths of loyalty andvota pro salute imperatoris,vows and offerings for the wellbeing(salus)of the emperor. Observances resembled those on January 3, which had replaced the traditional vows made for thesalusof therepublicafter the transition to one-man rule underAugustus.Thedies imperiiwas a recognition that succession during the Empire might take place irregularly through the death or overthrow of an emperor, in contrast to the annual magistracies of the Republic when the year was designated by the names ofconsulsserving their one-year term.

Thedies Augustiordies Augustuswas more generally any anniversary pertaining to the imperial family, such as birthdays or weddings, appearing on official calendars as part ofImperial cult.References to adies Caesarisare also found, but it is unclear whether or how it differed from thedies Augusti.

dies lustricus

Thedies lustricus( "day of purification" ) was a rite carried out for the newborn on the eighth day of life for girls and the ninth day for boys. Little is known of the ritual procedure, but the child must have received its name on that day; funerary inscriptions for infants who died before theirdies lustricusare nameless.The youngest person found commemorated on a Roman tombstone by name was a male infant nine days old (or 10 days in Romaninclusive counting).Because of the rate ofinfant mortality,perhaps as high as 40 percent,the newborn in its first few days of life was held as in aliminalphase, vulnerable to malignant forces (seeList of Roman birth and childhood deities). Socially, the child did not exist.Thedies lustricusmay have been when the child received thebulla,the protective amulet that was put aside when aboy passed into adulthood.

dies natalis

Page listing imperialnatalesby month from the 17th-centuryCodex Vaticanus Barberini latinus,based on theCalendar of Filocalus(354 AD)

Adies nataliswas a birthday ( "natal day"; see alsodies lustricusabove) or more generally the anniversary of a founding event. The Romans celebrated an individual's birthday annually, in contrast to the Greek practice of marking the date each month with a simplelibation.The Romandies nataliswas connected with thecultowed to theGenius.A public figure might schedule a major event on his birthday:Pompeius Magnus ( "Pompey the Great" )waited seven months after he returned from his military campaigns in the East before he staged histriumph,so he could celebrate it on his birthday.The coincidence of birthdays and anniversaries could have a positive or negative significance: news ofDecimus Brutus'svictory at Mutinawas announced at Rome on his birthday, whileCaesar's assassinCassiussuffereddefeat at Philippion his birthday and committed suicide.Birthdays were one of the dates on which the dead were commemorated.

The date when a temple was founded, or when it was rededicated after a major renovation or rebuilding, was also adies natalis,and might be felt as the "birthday" of the deity it housed as well. The date of such ceremonies was therefore chosen by the pontiffs with regard to its position on the religious calendar. The "birthday" orfoundation date of Romewas celebrated April 21, the day of theParilia,an archaic pastoral festival.As part of a flurry of religious reforms and restorations in the period from 38 BC to 17 AD, no fewer than fourteen temples had theirdies natalismoved to another date, sometimes with the clear purpose of aligning them with new Imperial theology after the collapse of the Republic.

The birthdays of emperors were observed with public ceremonies as an aspect ofImperial cult.TheFeriale Duranum,a military calendar of religious observances, features a large number of imperial birthdays.Augustusshared his birthday (September 23) with the anniversary of the Temple of Apollo in theCampus Martius,and elaborated on his connection withApolloin developing his special religious status.

A birthday commemoration was also called anatalicium,which could take the form of a poem. Early Christian poets such asPaulinus of Nolaadopted thenataliciumpoem for commemorating saints.The day on whichChristian martyrsdied is regarded as theirdies natalis;seeCalendar of saints.

dies religiosus

According toFestus,it was wrong(nefas)to undertake any action beyond attending to basic necessities on a day that wasreligiosuson the calendar. On these days, there were to be nomarriages,political assemblies, or battles. Soldiers were not to be enlisted, nor journeys started. Nothing new was to be started, and no religious acts(res divinae)performed.Aulus Gelliussaid thatdies religiosiwere to be distinguished from those that werenefasti.

dies vitiosus

The phrasediem vitiare( "to vitiate a day" ) in augural practice meant that the normal activities of public business were prohibited on a given day, presumably byobnuntiatio,because of observed signs that indicated defect(morbus;seevitium).Unlike adies religiosusor adies ater( "black day," typically the anniversary of a calamity), a particular date did not become permanentlyvitiosus,with one exception. Some Roman calendars(fasti)produced underAugustusand up to the time ofClaudiusmark January 14 as adies vitiosus,a day that was inherently "vitiated". January 14 is the only day to be marked annually and officially by decree of theRoman senate(senatus consultum)asvitiosus.Linderskicalls this "a very remarkable innovation."One calendar, theFasti Verulani(c. 17–37 AD), explains the designation by noting it was thedies natalisofMark Antony,which the Greek historian and Roman senatorCassius Diosays had been declared ἡμέρα μιαρά(hēmera miara)(=dies vitiosus) by Augustus.The emperor Claudius, who was the grandson of Antony, rehabilitated the day.

dirae

The adjectivedirusas applied to an omen meant "dire, awful." It often appears in thefeminineplural as asubstantivemeaning "evil omens."Diraewere the worst of the five kinds of signs recognized by theaugurs,and were a type ofoblativeor unsought sign that foretold disastrous consequences. The ill-fated departure ofMarcus Crassusfor theinvasion of Parthiawas notably attended bydirae(seeAteius Capito). In the interpretiveetymologyof ancient writers,diraewas thought to derive fromdei irae,the grudges or anger of a god, that is,divine wrath.Diraeis anepithetfor theFuries,and can also mean curses or imprecations,particularly in the context ofmagicand related todefixiones(curse tablets).In explaining whyClaudiusfelt compelled to ban the religion of thedruids,Suetoniusspeaks of it asdirus,alluding to the practice ofhuman sacrifice.

disciplina Etrusca

Etruscanliver of Piacenza

The collective body of knowledge pertaining to the doctrine, ritual practices, laws, and science ofEtruscan religionandcosmologywas known as thedisciplina Etrusca.Divination was a particular feature of thedisciplina.The Etruscan texts on thedisciplinathat were known to the Romans are of three kinds: thelibri haruspicini(onharuspicy), thelibri fulgurales(lightning), and thelibri rituales(ritual).Nigidius Figulus,theLate Republicanscholar andpraetorof 58 BC, was noted for his expertise in thedisciplina.Extant ancient sources on theEtrusca disciplinaincludePliny the Elder,Seneca,Cicero,Johannes Lydus,MacrobiusandFestus.

divus

See also:Imperial cult (ancient Rome) § Divus, deus and the numen

Theadjectivedivus,femininediva,is usually translated as "divine." As asubstantive,divusrefers to a "deified" or divinized mortal. Bothdeusanddivusderive fromIndo-European*deywos,Old Latindeivos.Serviusconfirmsthatdeusis used for "perpetual deities"(deos perpetuos),butdivusfor people who become divine(divos ex hominibus factos = gods who once were men).While this distinction is useful in considering the theological foundations ofImperial cult,it sometimes vanishes in practice, particularly in Latin poetry;Vergil,for instance, mostly usesdeusanddivusinterchangeably.Varroand Ateius,however, maintained that the definitions should be reversed.

do ut des

The formulado ut des( "I give that you might give" ) expresses the reciprocity of exchange between human being and deity, reflecting the importance of gift-giving as a mutual obligation in ancient society and the contractual nature of Roman religion. The gifts offered by the human being take the form of sacrifice, with the expectation that the god will return something of value, prompting gratitude and further sacrifices in a perpetuating cycle.Thedo ut desprinciple is particularly active in magic and private ritual.Do ut deswas also a judicial concept ofcontract law.

InPauline theology,do ut deswas viewed as a reductive form of piety, merely a "business transaction", in contrast toGod'sunilateralgrace(χάρις,charis).Max Weber,inThe Sociology of Religion,saw it as "a purely formalistic ethic."InThe Elementary Forms of Religious Life,however,Émile Durkheimregarded the concept as not merelyutilitarian,but an expression of "the mechanism of the sacrificial system itself" as "an exchange of mutually invigorating good deeds between the divinity and his faithful."

E

effatio

The verbeffari,past participleeffatus,means "to create boundaries(fines)by means offixed verbal formulas."Effatiois theabstract noun.It was one of the three parts of theceremony inauguratingatemplum(sacred space), preceded by the consulting ofsignsand theliberatiowhich "freed" the space from malign or competing spiritual influences and human effects.A siteliberatus et effatuswas thus "exorcized and available."The result was alocus inauguratus( "inaugurated site" ), the most common form of which was thetemplum.The boundaries had permanent markers (cippiortermini), and when these were damaged or removed, theireffatiohad to be renewed.

evocatio

Relief (1st century AD) depicting the Palladium atop a column entwined by a snake, to whichVictorypresents an egg as a warrior attends in a pose of peace

The "calling forth" or "summoning away" of a deity was anevocatio,fromevoco, evocare,"summon." The ritual was conducted in a military setting either as a threat during asiegeor as a result of surrender, and aimed at diverting the favor of atutelary deityfrom the opposing city to the Roman side, customarily with a promise of a better-endowed cult or a more lavish temple.As atacticofpsychological warfare,evocatioundermined the enemy's sense of security by threatening the sanctity of its city walls (seepomerium) and other forms of divine protection. In practice,evocatiowas a way to mitigate otherwise sacrilegious looting of religious images from shrines.

Recorded examples of evocations include the transferral ofJuno Regina( "Juno the Queen", originallyEtruscanUni) fromVeiiin 396 BC;the ritual performed byScipio Aemilianusin 146 BC at the defeat of Carthage, involvingTanit(Juno Caelestis);and the dedication of a temple to an unnamed, gender-indeterminate deity atIsaura VetusinAsia Minorin 75 BC.Some scholars think thatVortumnus(EtruscanVoltumna) was brought by evocation to Rome in 264 BC as a result ofM. Fulvius Flaccus's defeat of theVolsinii.In Roman myth, a similar concept motivates the transferral of thePalladiumfromTroyto Rome, where it served as one of thepignora imperii,sacred tokens of Roman sovereignty.Compareinvocatio,the "calling on" of a deity.

Formal evocations are known only during theRepublic.Other forms of religious assimilation appear from the time ofAugustus,often in connection with the establishment of theImperial cultin theprovinces.

Evocatio,"summons",was also a term ofRoman lawwithout evident reference to its magico-religious sense.

exauguratio

A site that had been inaugurated(locus inauguratus),that is, marked out through augural procedure, could not have its purpose changed without a ceremony of reversal.Removing a god from the premises required the correct ceremonial invocations.WhenTarquinrebuilt the temple district on theCapitoline,a number of deities were dislodged byexauguratio,thoughTerminusandJuventas"refused" and were incorporated into the new structure.A distinction between theexauguratioof a deity and anevocatiocan be unclear.The procedure was in either case rare, and was required only when a deity had to yield place to another, or when the site was secularized. It was not required when a site was upgraded, for instance, if an open-air altar were to be replaced with a temple building to the same god.

The term could also be used for removing someone from a priestly office(sacerdotium).Compareinauguratio.

eximius

Anadjective,"choice, select," used to denote the high quality required of sacrificial victims: "Victims(hostiae)are called 'select'(eximiae)because they are selected(eximantur)from the herd and designated for sacrifice, or because they are chosen on account of their choice(eximia)appearance as offerings to divine entities(numinibus)."The adjective here is synonymous withegregius,"chosen from the herd(grex, gregis)."Macrobiussays it is specifically asacerdotalterm and not a "poeticepithet"(poeticum ἐπίθετον).

exta

Theextawere the entrails of asacrificed animal,comprising inCicero's enumeration the gall bladder (fel), liver (iecur), heart (cor), and lungs (pulmones).Theextawere exposed forlitation(divine approval) as part of Roman liturgy, but were "read" in the context of thedisciplina Etrusca.As a product of Roman sacrifice, theextaand blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat(viscera)is shared among human beings in a communal meal. Theextaof bovine victims were usually stewed in a pot (ollaoraula), while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers. When the deity's portion was cooked, it was sprinkled withmola salsa(ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering; the technical verb for this action wasporricere.

F

fanaticus

Fanaticusmeans "belonging to afanum,"a shrine or sacred precinct.Fanaticias applied to people refers to temple attendants or devotees of a cult, usually one of theecstaticororgiasticreligions such as that ofCybele(in reference to theGalli),Bellona-Ma,or perhapsSilvanus.Inscriptions indicate that a person making a dedication might label himselffanaticus,in the neutral sense of "devotee".Tacitususesfanaticusto describe the troop ofdruidswho attended on theIcenianqueenBoudica.The word was often used disparagingly by ancient Romans in contrasting these more emotive rites to the highly scripted procedures of public religion,and later by early Christians to deprecate religions other than their own; hence the negative connotation of "fanatic"in English.

Festussays that a tree struck by lightning is calledfanaticus,a reference to the Romano-Etruscan belief in lightning as a form of divine sign.TheGallicbishopCaesarius of Arles,writing in the 5th century, indicates that such trees retained their sanctity even up to his own time,and urged the Christian faithful to burn down thearbores fanatici.These trees either were located in and marked afanumor were themselves considered afanum.Caesarius is somewhat unclear as to whether the devotees regarded the tree itself as divine or whether they thought its destruction would kill thenumenhoused within it. Either way, even scarcity of firewood would not persuade them to use the sacred wood for fuel, a scruple for which he mocked them.

fanum

"Fanum" redirects here. For the streamer, seeFanum (streamer).

Afanumis a plot of consecrated ground, a sanctuary,and from that a temple or shrine built there.Afanummay be a traditional sacred space such as thegrove(lucus) ofDiana Nemorensis,or a sacred space or structure for non-Roman religions, such as an Iseum (temple ofIsis) orMithraeum.Cognatessuch asOscanfíísnú,Umbrianfesnaf-e,andPaelignianfesnindicate that the concept is shared byItalic peoples.The Greektemenoswas the same concept. By theAugustanperiod,fanum,aedes,templum,anddelubrumare scarcely distinguishable in usage,butfanumwas a more inclusive and general term.

Thefanum,Romano-Celtic temple,orambulatorytemple ofRoman Gaulwas often built over an originallyCelticreligious site, and its plan was influenced by the ritual architecture of earlier Celtic sanctuaries. The masonry temple building of theGallo-Roman periodhad a central space (cella) and a peripheral gallery structure, both square.Romano-Celticfanaof this type are found also inRoman Britain.

The English word "profane"ultimately derives from Latinpro fano,"before, i.e. outside, the temple", "In front of the sanctuary," hence not within sacred ground.

fata deorum

Fata deorumor the contracted formfata deumare the utterances of the gods; that is, prophecies.These were recorded in written form, and conserved by the state priests of Rome for consultation. Thefataare both "fate" as known and determined by the gods, or the expression of the divine will in the form of verbal oracles.Fata deumis a theme of theAeneid,Virgil's national epic of Rome.

TheSibylline Books(Fata SibyllinaorLibri Fatales),composed in Greek hexameters, are an example of writtenfata.These were not Roman in origin but were believed to have been acquired in only partial form byLucius Tarquinius Superbus.They were guarded by the priesthood of thedecemviri sacris faciundis"ten men for carrying out sacred rites", later fifteen in number:quindecimviri sacris faciundis.No one read the books in their entirety; they were consulted only when needed. A passage was selected at random and its relevance to the current situation was a matter of expert interpretation.They were thought to containfata rei publicae aeterna,"prophecies eternally valid for Rome".They continued to be consulted throughout the Imperial period until the time of Christian hegemony.Augustusinstalled the Sibylline books in a special golden storage case under the statue of Apollo in theTemple of Apollo Palatinus.The emperorAurelianchastised the senate for succumbing to Christian influence and not consulting the books.Julianconsulted the books regarding his campaign against Persia, but departed before he received the unfavorable response of the college; Julian was killed and the Temple of Apollo Palatinus burned.

fas

Fasis a central concept in Roman religion. Although translated in some contexts as "divine law,"fasis more precisely that which is "religiously legitimate,"or an action that is lawful in the eyes of the gods.In public religion,fas estis declared before announcing an action required or allowed by Roman religious custom and by divine law.Fasis thus both distinguished from and linked toius(pluraliura), "law, lawfulness, justice," as indicated byVergil's often-cited phrasefas et iura sinunt,"fasandiuraallow (it), "whichServiusexplains as "divine and human laws permit (it), forfaspertains to religion,iurato the human being. "

TheFasti Antiates Maiores,a pre-Julian calendarin a reconstructed drawing

InRoman calendars,days markedFaredies fasti,when it isfasto attend to the concerns of everyday life.In non-specialized usage,fas estmay mean generally "it is permissible, it is right."

Theetymologyoffasis debated. It is more commonly associated with thesemantic fieldof the verbfor, fari,"to speak,"an origin pressed byVarro.In other sources, both ancient and modern,fasis thought to have its origin in anIndo-European rootmeaning "to establish," along withfanumandferiae.See alsoFastiandnefas.

fasti

A record or plan of official and religiously sanctioned events. All state and societal business must be transacted ondies fasti,"allowed days". Thefastiwere the records of all details pertaining to these events. The word was used alone in a general sense or qualified by an adjective to mean a specific type of record. Closely associated with thefastiand used to mark time in them were the divisions of theRoman calendar.

TheFastiis also the title of a six-book poem byOvidbased on the Roman religious calendar. It is a major source for Roman religious practice, and was translated into English byJ. G. Frazer.

felix

In its religious sense,felixmeans "blessed, under the protection or favour of the gods; happy." That which isfelixhas achieved thepax divom,a state of harmony or peace with the divine world.It is rooted inIndo-European*dhe(i)l,meaning "happy, fruitful, productive, full of nourishment." Related Latin words includefemina,"woman" (a person who provides nourishment or suckles);felo,"to suckle"; andfilius,"son" (a person suckled).See alsoFelicitas,both an abstraction that expressed the quality of beingfelixand a deity of Roman state religion.

feria

Further information:Roman festivals

Aferiaon theRoman calendaris a "free day", that is, a day in which no work was done. No court sessions were held, nor was any public business conducted. Employees were entitled to a day off, and even slaves were not obliged to work. These days were codified into a system of legal public holidays, theferiae publicae,which could be

• stativae,"stationary, fixed", holidays which recurred on the same date each year;
• conceptivae,recurring holidays for which the date depended on some other factor, usually the agrarian cycle. They includedCompitalia,Paganalia,SementivaeandLatinae(compare the moveable Christian holiday ofEaster);
• imperativae,one-off holidays ordered to mark a special occasion, established with an act of authority of a magistrate.

In the ChristianRoman Rite,aferiais a day of the week other than Saturday or Sunday.The custom throughout Europe of holding markets on the same day gave rise to the word "fair"(SpanishFeria,ItalianFiera,CatalanFira).

festus

In theRoman calendar,adies festusis a festive or holy day, that is, a day dedicated to a deity or deities. On such days it was forbidden to undertake any profane activity, especially official or public business. Alldies festiwere thusnefasti.Some days, however, were notfestiand yet might not be permissible as business days(fasti)for other reasons. The days on which profane activities were permitted areprofesti.

fetial

Thefetiales,or fetial priests.

finis

Thefinis(limit, border, boundary), pluralfines,was an essential concept inauguralpractice, which was concerned with the definition of thetemplum.Establishingfineswas an important part of amagistrate's duties.Most scholars regard thefinisas having been defined physically by ropes, trees, stones, or other markers, as were fields and property boundaries in general. It was connected with the godTerminusand his cult.

flamen

Flamen wearing the distinctive hat of his office, with the top point missing(3rd century AD)

The fifteenflaminesformed part of theCollege of Pontiffs.Each flamen served as the high priest to one of the official deities of Roman religion, and led the rituals relating to that deity. Theflamineswere regarded as the most ancient among thesacerdotes,as many of them were assigned to deities who dated back to the prehistory of Latium and whose significance had already become obscure by classical times.

The archaic nature of the flamens is indicated by their presence amongLatin tribes.They officiated at ceremonies with their head covered by avelumand always wore afilamen,thread, in contrast to public rituals conducted by Greek rite(ritus graecus)which were established later. Ancient authors derive the wordflamenfrom the custom of covering the head with thefilamen,but it may becognatetoVedicbrahmin.The distinctive headgear of the flamen was theapex.

Fratres Arvales

The "Brothers of the Field" were acollegeof priests whose duties were concerned with agriculture and farming. They were the most ancient religioussodalitas:according to tradition they were created byRomulus,but probably predated thefoundation of Rome.

G

Gabinus

The adjectivegabinusdescribes an element of religion that the Romans attributed to practices fromGabii,a town ofLatiumwithmunicipal statusabout 12 miles from Rome. The incorporation of Gabinian traditions indicates their special status under treaty with Rome. Seecinctus gabinusandager gabinus.

H

hostia

Ritual implements

Thehostiawas the offering, usually ananimal,in a sacrifice. The word is used interchangeably withvictimabyOvidand others, but some ancient authors attempt to distinguish between the two.Serviussaysthat thehostiais sacrificed before battle, thevictimaafterward, which accords with Ovid'setymologyin relating the "host" to the "hostiles" or enemy (hostis), and the "victim" to the "victor."

The difference between thevictimaandhostiais elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with thehostiasmaller (minor).Hostiaewere also classified by age:lactenteswere young enough to be still taking milk, but had reached the age to bepurae;bidenteshad reached two years of ageor had the two longer(bi-)incisorteeth(dentes)that are an indication of age.

Hostiaecould be classified in various ways. Ahostia consultatoriawas an offering for the purpose of consulting with a deity, that is, in order to know the will of a deity; thehostia animalis,to increase the force (mactare) of the deity.

The victim might also be classified by occasion and timing. Thehostia praecidaneawas an "anticipatory offering" made the day before a sacrifice.It was an advance atonement "to implore divine indulgence" should an error be committed on the day of the formal sacrifice.A preliminary pig was offered as apraecidaneathe day before the harvest began.Thehostia praecidaneawas offered toCeresa day in advance of a religious festival (sacrum,before the beginning of the harvest) in expiation for negligences in the duties of piety towards the deceased.Thehostia praesentanaeawas a pig offered to Ceres during a part of thefuneral ritesconducted within sight of the deceased, whose family was thereby ritually absolved.Ahostia succidaneawas offered at any rite after the first sacrifice had failed owing to a ritual impropriety (vitium).Comparepiaculum,an expiatory offering.

Hostiais the origin of the word "host" for theEucharisticsacrament of theWestern Church;seeSacramental bread: Catholic Church.See alsovotum,a dedication or a vow of an offering to a deity as well as that which fulfilled the vow.

I

inauguratio

A rite performed byaugursby which the concerned person received the approval of the gods for his appointment or their investiture. The augur would ask for the appearance of certain signs(auspicia impetrativa)while standing beside the appointee on theauguraculum.In theRegal period,inauguratioconcerned thekingand the majorsacerdotes.After the establishment of theRepublic,therex sacrorum,the threeflamines maiores,the augurs, and thepontiffsall had to be inaugurated.

The term may also refer to the ritual establishing of the auguraltemplumand the tracing of the wall of a new city.

indigitamenta

Theindigitamentawere lists of gods maintained by theCollege of Pontiffsto assure that the correctdivine nameswere invoked for public prayers. It is sometimes unclear whether these names represent distinct minor entities, orepithetspertaining to an aspect of a major deity's sphere of influence, that is, anindigitation,or name intended to "fix" or focalize the local action of the god so invoked.Varrois assumed to have drawn on direct knowledge of the lists in writing his theological books, as evidenced by the catalogues of minor deities mocked by theChurch Fatherswho used his workas a reference.Another source is likely to have been the non-extant workDe indigitamentisofGranius Flaccus,Varro's contemporary.Not to be confused with thedi indigetes.

invocatio

The addressing of a deity in aprayeror magic spell is theinvocatio,frominvoco, invocare,"to call upon" the gods or spirits of the dead.The efficacy of theinvocatiodepends on the correct naming of the deity, which may includeepithets,descriptive phrases, honorifics or titles, and arcane names. The list of names (nomina) is often extensive, particularly in magic spells; many prayers andhymnsare composed largely of invocations.The name is invoked in either thevocativeor theaccusativecase.In specialized usage pertaining toauguralprocedure,invocatiois a synonym forprecatio,but specifically aimed at avertingmala,evil occurrences.Compareevocatio.

The equivalent term inancient Greek religionisepiklesis.Pausaniasdistinguished among the categories oftheonymproper, poeticepithet,theepiclesisof local cult, and anepiclesisthat might be used universally among the Greeks.Epiclesisremains in use by some Christian churches for theinvocationof theHoly Spiritduring theEucharistic prayer.

ius

Iusis the Latin word for justice, right, equity, fairness and all which came to be understood as the sphere oflaw.It is defined in the opening words of theDigestawith the words of Celsus as "the art of that which is good and fair" and similarly by Paulus as "that which is always just and fair".The polymathVarroand the juristGaiusconsider the distinction between divine and humaniusessentialbut divine order is the source of all laws, whether natural or human, so thepontifexis considered the final judge (iudex) and arbiter.The juristUlpiandefinesjurisprudenceas "the knowledge of human and divine affairs, of what is just and unjust".

ius divinum

"Sacred law"or "divine law", particularly in regard to the gods' rights pertaining to their "property", that which is rightfully theirs.Recognition of theius divinumwas fundamental to maintaining right relations between human beings and their deities. The concern for law and legal procedure that was characteristic of ancient Roman society was also inherent in Roman religion.See alsopax deorum.

ius pontificum

Pontifical law governing Roman religion coveredsacra,rites;vota,pledges;feriae,holy days; andsepulchra,graves.Cicero describes it asabsconditum,secret.A book on pontifical law, probably the one written in the mid-2nd century BC byFabius Pictor,was consulted byAulus Gelliusin the 2nd century AD as a source on theflamenandflaminica Dialis.

L

lavatio

The bathing of the cult image of a deity, particularly goddesses, might be prescribed in an annual ritual. Alavatiowas an especial part of the imported cult ofCybele,whose statue and associated objects were carried in procession for bathing in the riverAlmo.Ovid says that the statue ofVenus Verticordiawas bathed as part of theVeneraliaon thefirst of April,but the absence of thislavatioin any other source may indicate that since it was meant to be conducted by women, themagistratesdid not attend.

lectisternium

Thelectisterniumwas a propitiatory ceremony that took the form of a meal offered to divinities, as if seated for banqueting on a couch(lectus).

lex

Main article:Roman law

The wordlex(pluralleges) derives from theIndo-Europeanroot*leg,as do the Latin verbslego, legare, ligo, ligare( "to appoint, bequeath" ) andlego, legere( "to gather, choose, select, discern, read": cf. also Greek verblegein"to collect, tell, speak" ), and the abstract nounreligio.Parties to legal proceedings and contracts bound themselves to observance by the offer of sacrifice to witnessing deities.

Even though the wordlexunderwent the frequent semantic shift in Latin towards the legal area, its original meaning of set, formulaic words was preserved in some instances. Some cult formulae areleges:anaugur's request for particular signs that would betoken divine approval in an augural rite (augurium), or in theinaugurationof magistrates and somesacerdotesis namedlegum dictio.The formulaquaqua lege volet( "by whatever lex, i.e. wording he wishes" ) allowed a cult performer discretion in his choice of ritual words.Theleges templiregulated cult actions at various temples.

In civil law, ritualised sets of words and gestures known aslegis actioneswere in use as a legal procedure in civil cases; they were regulated by custom and tradition(mos maiorum)and were thought to involve protection of the performers from malign or occult influences.

Libation preceding a sacrifice, depicted on a 3rd-century sarcophagus

libatio

Libation(Latinlibatio,Greekspondai) was one of the simplest religious acts, regularly performed in daily life. At home, a Roman who was about to drink wine would pour the first few drops onto the household altar.The drink offering might also be poured on the ground or at a public altar. Milk and honey, water, and oil were also used.

liberatio

Theliberatio(from the verbliberare,"to free" ) was the "liberating" of a place(locus)from "all unwanted or hostile spirits and of all human influences," as part of theceremony inauguratingthetemplum(sacred space). It was preceded by the consulting ofsignsand followed by theeffatio,the creation of boundaries(fines).A siteliberatus et effatuswas "exorcized and available" for its sacred purpose.

libri augurales

The augural books (libri augurales) represented the collective, core knowledge of theaugural college.Some scholarsconsider them distinct from thecommentarii augurum(commentaries of the augurs) which recorded the collegial acts of the augurs, including thedecretaandresponsa.The books were central to the practice of augury. They have not survived, butCicero,who was an augur himself, offers a summary inDe Legibusthat represents "precise dispositions based certainly on an official collection edited in a professional fashion."

libri pontificales

Thelibri pontificales(pontifical books) are core texts in Roman religion, which survive as fragmentary transcripts and commentaries. They may have been partly annalistic, part priestly; different Roman authors refer to them aslibriandcommentarii(commentaries), described by Livy as incomplete "owing to the long time elapsed and the rare use of writing" and byQuintillianas unintelligibly archaic and obscure. The earliest were credited toNuma,secondking of Rome,who was thought to have codified the core texts and principles of Rome's religious and civil law (ius divinumandius civile).See alsocommentarii pontificum.

litatio

Inanimal sacrifice,thelitatiofollowed the opening up of the body cavity for theinspection of the entrails (inspicere exta).Litatiowas not a part of divinatory practice as derived from theEtruscans(seeextispicyandLiver of Piacenza), but rather a certification according to Roman liturgy of the gods' approval. The point was not that those sacrificing had to make sure that the victim was perfect inside and out; rather, the good internal condition of the animal was evidence of divine acceptance of the offering. The need for the deity to approve and accept (litare) underscores that the reciprocity of sacrifice (do ut des) was not to be taken for granted.

If the organs were diseased or defective, the procedure had to be restarted with a new victim (hostia). In 176 BCthe presidingconsulsattempted to sacrifice an ox, only to find that its liver had been consumed by a wasting disease. After three more oxen failed to pass the test, thesenate's instructions were to keep sacrificing bigger victims untillitatiocould be obtained.

Lituus(at right) and other priestly implements under the titleaugur

lituus

Thelituusis the distinctively curved staff of anaugur,frequently depicted onRoman coinsand most often accompanied by a ritual jug or pitcher. The presence of thelituusindicates that either themoneyeror person honored on theobversewas an augur.

lucus

In religious usage, alucuswas agroveor small wooded area considered sacred to a divinity. Entrance might be severely restricted: Paulusexplains that acapitalis lucuswas protected from human access under penalty of death.Leges sacratae(laws for the violation of which the offender is outlawed)concerning sacred groves have been found oncippiatSpoletoinUmbriaandLucerainApulia.See alsonemus.

ludi

Ludiwere games held as part ofreligious festivals,and some were originallysacralin nature. These includedchariot racingand thevenatio,or staged animal-humanblood sportthat may have had asacrificialelement.

Luperci

The "wolf priests", organized into twocollegesand later three, who participated in theLupercalia.The most famous person to serve as alupercuswasMark Antony.

lustratio

Thelustratiois a ritual of purification that was held every five years under the jurisdiction of censors in Rome. Its original meaning was purifying by washing in water (Lat.lustrumfrom verbluo,"I wash in water" ). The time elapsing between two subsequent lustrations being of five years the termlustrumtook up the meaning of a period of five year.

M

manubia

Zeus(EtruscanTinia,RomanJupiter) holding a three-pronged lightning bolt, between Apollo andHera/Juno(red-figurecalyx-kraterfrom Etruria, 420-400 BC)

Manubiais a technical term of theEtruscan discipline,and refers to the power of a deity to wield lightning, represented in divine icons by a lightning bolt in the hand. It may be either aLatinizedword fromEtruscanor less likely a formation frommanus,"hand," andhabere,"to have, hold."It is not apparently related to the more common Latin wordmanubiaemeaning "booty (taken by a general in war)."Senecauses the term in an extended discussion oflightning.Jupiter,asidentified withEtruscanTinia,held three types ofmanubiaesent from three different celestial regions.Stefan Weinstock describes these as:

1. mild, or "perforating" lightning;
2. harmful or "crushing" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the twelveDi Consentesand occasionally does some good;
3. destructive or "burning" lightning, which is sent on the advice of thedi superiores et involuti(hidden gods of the "higher" sphere) and changes the state of public and private affairs.

Jupiter makes use of the first type of beneficial lightning to persuade or dissuade.Books on how to read lightning were one of the three main forms of Etruscan learning on the subject ofdivination.

miraculum

One of several words for portent or sign,miraculumis a non-technical term that places emphasis on the observer's response (mirum,"a wonder, marvel" ).Livyuses the wordmiraculum,for instance, to describe the sign visited uponServius Tulliusas a child, when divine flames burst forth from his head and the royal household witnessed the event.Comparemonstrum,ostentum,portentum,andprodigium.

Miraculumis the origin of the English word "miracle." Christian writers later developed a distinction betweenmiracula,the true forms of which were evidence of divine power in the world, and meremirabilia,things to be marveled at but not resulting fromGod's intervention. "Pagan" marvels were relegated to the category ofmirabiliaand attributed to the work of demons.

Emmer wheat, used formola salsa

mola salsa

Flour mixed with salt was sprinkled on the forehead and between the horns of sacrificial victims, as well as on the altar and in the sacred fire. Thismola salsa('salted flour') was prepared ritually from toastedwheat or emmer,spelt,orbarleyby theVestals,who thus contributed to every official sacrifice in Rome.Serviususes the wordspiusandcastusto describe the product.Themolawas so fundamental to sacrifice that "to put on themola"(Latinimmolare) came to mean "to sacrifice." Its use was one of the numerous religious traditions ascribed toNuma,theSabinesecondking of Rome.

monstrum

Amonstrumis a sign or portent that disrupts the natural order as evidence of divine displeasure.The wordmonstrumis usually assumed to derive, asCicerosays, from the verbmonstro,"show" (compare English "demonstrate" ), but according toVarroit comes frommoneo,"warn."Because a sign must be startling or deviant to have an impact,monstrumcame to mean "unnatural event"or "a malfunctioning of nature."Suetoniussaid that "amonstrumis contrary to nature (or exceeds the nature) we are familiar with, like a snake with feet or a bird with four wings. "The Greek equivalent wasteras.The English word "monster" derived from the negative sense of the word. Comparemiraculum,ostentum,portentum,andprodigium.

In one of the most famous uses of the word inLatin literature,theAugustanpoetHoracecallsCleopatraafatale monstrum,something deadly and outside normal human bounds.Cicero callsCatilinemonstrum atque prodigiumand uses the phrase several times to insult various objects of his attacks as depraved and beyond the human pale. ForSeneca,themonstrumis, like tragedy, "a visual and horrific revelation of the truth."

mundus

Literally "the world", also a pit supposedly dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation rites. Its interpretation is problematic; it was normally sealed, and was ritually opened only on three occasions during the year. Still, in the most ancient Fasti, these days were marked C(omitiales)(days when theComitiamet) suggesting the idea that the whole ritual was a later Greek import.HoweverCatoandVarroas quoted byMacrobiusconsidered themreligiosi.When opened, the pit served as a cache for offerings to underworld deities, particularlyCeres,goddess of the fruitful earth. It offered a portal between the upper and lower worlds; its shape was said to be an inversion of the dome of the upper heavens.

N

nefandum

An adjective derived fromnefas(following). The gerund of verbfari,to speak, is commonly used to form derivate or inflected forms offas.See Vergil'sfandias genitive offas.This use has been invoked to support the derivation offasfrom IE root *bha, Latin fari.

nefas

Any thing or action contrary to divine law and will isnefas(in archaic legalese,ne(not)...fas).Nefasforbids a thing as religiously and morally offensive, or indicates a failure to fulfill a religious duty.It might be nuanced as "a religious duty not to", as inFestus' statement that "a man condemned by the people for a heinous action issacer"— that is, given over to the gods for judgment and disposal —" it is not a religious duty to execute him, but whoever kills him will not be prosecuted ".

Livyrecords that thepatriciansopposedlegislation that would allowaplebeianto hold the office ofconsulon the grounds that it wasnefas:a plebeian, they claimed, would lack the arcane knowledge of religious matters thatby traditionwas a patrician prerogative. Theplebeian tribuneGaius Canuleius,whoselexit was, retorted that it was arcane because the patricians kept it secret.

nefastus

Usually found withdies(singular or plural), asdies nefasti,days on which official transactions were forbidden on religious grounds. See alsonefas,fastiandfas.

nemus

Nemus,pluralnemora,was one of four Latin words that meant "forest, woodland, woods."Lucusis more strictly asacred grove,as defined byServiusas "a large number of trees with areligious significance",and distinguished from thesilva,a natural forest;saltus,territory that is wilderness; and anemus,anarboretumthat is not consecrated (but compare Celticnemeton).In Latin poetry, anemusis often a place conducive to poetic inspiration, and particularly in theAugustanperiod takes on a sacral aura.

Namednemorainclude:

• ThenemusofAnna Perenna.
• Nemus Caesarum,dedicated to the memory of Augustus's grandsons Gaius and Lucius.
• Thenemus Aricinumsacred toDiana,EgeriaandVirbius.

nuntiatio

The chief responsibility of anaugurwas to observe signs(observatio)and to report the results(nuntiatio).The announcement was made before anassembly.A passage inCicerostates that the augur was entitled to report on the signs observed before or during an assembly and that themagistrateshad the right to watch for signs(spectio)as well as make the announcement(nuntiatio)prior to the conducting of public business, but the exact significance of Cicero's distinction is a matter of scholarly debate.

O

obnuntiatio

Obnuntiatiowas a declaration of unfavourable signs by anaugurin order to suspend, cancel or postpone a proposed course of public action. The procedure could be carried out only by an official who had the right to observe omens (spectio).

The only source for the term isCicero,himself an augur, who refers to it in several speeches as a religious bulwark againstpopularistpoliticians and tribunes. TheLex Aelia Fufia(ca. 150 BC) may have extended the right ofobnuntiatiobeyond the augural college to all magistrates. Legislation byClodiusastribune of the plebsin 58 BC was aimed at ending the practice,or at least curtailing its potential for abuse;obnuntiatiohad been exploited the previous year as an obstructionist tactic byJulius Caesar'sconsularcolleagueBibulus.That the Clodian law had not deprived all augurs ormagistratesof the privilege is indicated byMark Antony's use ofobnuntatioin early 44 BC to halt the consular election.

observatio

Observatiowas the interpretation of signs according to the tradition of the "Etruscan discipline",or as preserved in books such as thelibri augurales.Aharuspexinterpretedfulgura(thunder and lightning) andexta(entrails) byobservatio.The word has three closely related meanings in augury: the observing of signs by anauguror other diviner; the process of observing, recording, and establishing the meaning of signs over time; and the codified body of knowledge accumulated by systematic observation, that is, "unbending rules" regarded as objective, or external to an individual's observation on a given occasion.Impetrative signs,or those sought by standard augural procedure, were interpreted according toobservatio;the observer had little or no latitude in how they might be interpreted.Observatiomight also be applicable to manyoblativeor unexpected signs.Observatiowas considered a kind ofscientia,or "scientific" knowledge, in contrast toconiectura,a more speculative "art" or "method" (ars) as required by novel signs.

omen

Main article:Omen (ancient Rome)

An omen, pluralomina,was asignintimating the future, considered less important to the community than aprodigiumbut of great importance to the person who heard or saw it.Omens could be good or bad. Unlikeprodigia,bad omens were never expiated by public rites but could be reinterpreted, redirected or otherwise averted (seeabominari).

ostentarium

One form of arcane literature was theostentarium,a written collection describing and interpreting signs (ostenta).Tarquitius Priscuswrote anOstentarium arborarium,a book on signs pertaining to trees, and anOstentarium Tuscum,presumably translations of Etruscan works.Plinycites his contemporaryUmbricius Meliorfor anostentarium aviarium,concerning birds.They were consulted until late antiquity; in the 4th century, for instance, theharuspicesconsulted the books of Tarquitius before the battle that proved fatal to the emperorJulian— according toAmmianus Marcellinus,because he failed to heed them.Fragments ofostentariasurvive as quotations in other literary works.

ostentum

According toVarro,anostentumis a sign so called because it shows (ostendit) something to a person.Suetoniusspecified that "anostentumshows itself to us without possessing a solid body and affects both our eyes and ears, like darkness or a light at night. "In his classic work on Roman divination,Auguste Bouché-Leclercqthus tried to distinguish theoretical usage ofostentaandportentaas applying to inanimate objects,monstrato biological signs, andprodigiafor human acts or movements, but in non-technical writing the words tend to be used more loosely as synonyms.

The theory ofostenta,portentaandmonstraconstituted one of the three branches of interpretation within thedisciplina Etrusca,the other two being the more specificfulgura(thunder and lightning) andexta(entrails).Ostentaandportentaare not the signs thataugursare trained to solicit and interpret, but rather "new signs", the meaning of which had to be figured out throughratio(the application of analytical principles) andconiectura(more speculative reasoning, in contrast to auguralobservatio).

ordo sacerdotum

A religious hierarchy implied by the seating arrangements of priests (sacerdotes) at sacrificial banquets. As "the most powerful", therex sacrorumwas positioned next to the gods, followed by theFlamen Dialis,then theFlamen Martialis,then theFlamen Quirinalisand lastly, thePontifex Maximus.Theordo sacerdotumobserved and preserved ritual distinctions between divine and human power. In the human world, the Pontifex Maximus was the most influential and powerful of allsacerdotes.

P

paludatus

Marswearing thepaludamentum

Paludatus(masculinesingular, pluralpaludati) is anadjectivemeaning "wearing thepaludamentum,"the distinctive attire of the Roman military commander.VarroandFestussay that any military ornament could be called apaludamentum,but other sources indicate that the cloak was primarily meant. According to Festus,paludatiin theaugural booksmeant "armed and adorned"(armati, ornati).As the commander crossed from the sacred boundary of Rome(pomerium),he waspaludatus,adorned with the attire he would wear to lead a battle and for official business.This adornment was thus part of the commander's ritual investiture withimperium.It followed upon the sacrifices andvowsthe commander offered up on the Capitol, and was concomitant with his possession of the auspices for war.

Festus notes elsewhere that the "Salian virgins",whose relation to theSalian priestsis unclear, performed their ritualspaludatae,dressed in military garb.

pax deorum

Pax,though usually translated into English as "peace," was a compact, bargain, or agreement.In religious usage, the harmony or accord between the divine and human was thepax deorumorpax divom( "the peace of the gods" or "divine peace" ).Pax deorumwas only given in return for correctreligious practice.Religious error (vitium) and impiety led to divine disharmony andira deorum(the anger of the gods).

piaculum

Apiaculumis an expiatory sacrifice, or thevictimused in the sacrifice; also, an act requiringexpiation.

Because Roman religion was contractual (do ut des), apiaculummight be offered as a sort of advance payment; the Arval Brethren, for instance, offered apiaculumbefore entering theirsacred grovewith an iron implement, which was forbidden, as well as after.The pig was a common victim for apiaculum.TheAugustanhistorianLivysaysP. Decius Musis "like" apiaculumwhen he makes his vow to sacrifice himself in battle (seedevotio).

pietas

Main article:Pietas

Pietas,from which English "piety" derives, was the devotion that bound a person to the gods, to the Roman state, and to his family. It was the outstanding quality of the Roman heroAeneas,to whom theepithetpiusis applied regularly throughout theAeneid.

pius

In Latin and otherItalic languages,piusseems to have meant "that which is in accord with divine law." Later it was used to designate actions respectful of divine law and even people who acted with respect towards gods and godly rules. Thepiusperson "strictly conforms his life to theius divinum.""Dutiful" is often a better translation of the adjective than the English derivative "pious."Piusis a regular epithet of the Romanfounding heroAeneasinVergil'sAeneid,along withpater,"father."See alsopietas,the relatedabstract noun.

pollucere

A verb of unknown etymology meaning "to consecrate."

pontifex

Thepontifexwas a priest of the highest-rankingcollege.The chief among thepontificeswas thePontifex Maximus.The word has been considered as related topons,bridge, either because of the religious meaning of thepons Subliciusand its ritual use(which has a parallel in Thebae and in itsgephiarioi) or in the original IE meaning of way.Pontifex in this case would be the "opener of the way" corresponding to the Vedicadharvayu,the only active and movingsacerdosin the sacrificial group who takes his title from the figurative designation of liturgy as a way.

Another hypothesisconsiders the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five people, from Osco-Umbrianponte,five. This explanation takes into account that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressionspontisandpomperiasfound in theIguvine Tabletsmay denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thus be a member of a sacrificial college known aspomperia(Latinquinio).

Attendant at a sacrifice with ax

popa

Thepopawas one of the lesser-rank officiants at a sacrifice. In depictions of sacrificial processions, he carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the animalvictim.Literary sources inlate antiquitysay that thepopawas apublic slave.See alsovictimarius.

porricere

The verbporricerehad the specialized religious meaning "to offer as a sacrifice," especially to offer the sacrificial entrails(exta)to the gods.Bothexta porricereandexta darereferred to the process by which the entrails were cooked, cut into pieces, and burnt on the altar. TheArval Brethrenused the termexta reddere,"to return the entrails," that is, to render unto the deity what has already been given as due.

portentum

Aportentumis a kind of sign interpreted by aharuspex,not anaugur,and by means ofconiecturarather thanobservatio.Portentumis a close but not always exact synonym ofostentum,prodigium,andmonstrum.Cicerousesportentumfrequently in his treatiseDe divinatione,where it seems to be a generic word for prodigies.The word could also refer in non-technical usage to an unnatural occurrence without specific religious significance; for instance,Plinycalls an Egyptian with a pair of non-functional eyes on the back of his head aportentum.Varroderivesportentumfrom the verbportenderebecause itportendssomething that is going to happen.

In the schema ofA. Bouché-Leclercq,portentaandostentaare the two types of signs that appear in inanimate nature, as distinguished from themonstrum(a biological singularity),prodigia(the unique acts or movements of living beings), and amiraculum,a non-technical term that emphasizes the viewer's reaction.The sense ofportentumhas also been distinguished from that ofostentumby relative duration of time, with theostentumof briefer manifestation.

Although the English word "portent" derives fromportentumand may be used to translate it, other Latin terms such asostentumandprodigiumwill also be found translated as "portent".Portentumoffers an example of an ancient Roman religious term modified for Christian usage; in theChristian theologyof miracles, aportentumoccurring by the will of theChristian Godcould not be regarded as contrary to nature (contra naturam), thusAugustinespecified that if such a sign appeared to be unnatural, it was only because it was contrary to nature as known (nota) by human beings.

precatio

Theprecatiowas the formal addressing of the deity or deities in a ritual. The word is related byetymologytoprex,"prayer" (pluralpreces), and usually translated as if synonymous.Plinysays that the slaughter of asacrificial victimis ineffectual withoutprecatio,the recitation of the prayer formula.Priestly texts that were collections of prayers were sometimes calledprecationes.

Two late examples of theprecatioare thePrecatio Terrae Matris( "The Prayer of Mother Earth" ) and thePrecatio omnium herbarum( "Prayer of All the Herbs" ), which are charms orcarminawritten metrically,the latter attached to the medical writings attributed toAntonius Musa.Dirae precationeswere "dire"prayers, that is, imprecations or curses.

Inauguralprocedure,precatiois not a prayer proper, but a form of invocation(invocatio)recited at the beginning of a ceremony or after accepting anoblative sign.Theprecatio maximawas recited for theaugurium salutis,the ritual conducted by the augurs to obtain divine permission to pray for Rome's security (salus).

In legal and rhetorical usage,precatiowas a plea or request.

prex

Prex,"prayer", usually appears in the plural,preces.Within the tripartite structure that was often characteristic of formal ancient prayer,preceswould be the final expression of what is sought from the deity, following theinvocationand a narrative middle.A legitimate request is an example ofbonae preces,"good prayer."Tacitae precesare silent orsotto voceprayers as might be used in private ritual or magic;preceswith a negative intent are described with adjectives such asThyesteae( "Thyestean"),funestae( "deadly" ),infelices(aimed at causing unhappiness),nefariae,ordirae.

In general usage,precescould refer to any request or entreaty. The verbal form isprecor, precari,"pray, entreat." TheUmbriancognateispersklu,"supplication." The meaning may be "I try and obtain by uttering appropriate words what is my right to obtain." It is used often in association withquaesoin expressions such aste precor quaesoque,"I pray and beseech you", orprece quaesit,"he seeks by means of prayer."InRoman lawof theImperial era,precesreferred to apetitionaddressed to theemperorby aprivate person.

prodigium

"Prodigium" redirects here. For the EP, seeProdigium (EP).

Prodigia(plural) were unnatural deviations from the predictable order of the cosmos. Aprodigiumsignaled divine displeasure at areligious offenseand must be expiated to avert more destructive expressions of divine wrath. Compareostentumandportentum,signs denoting an extraordinary inanimate phenomenon, andmonstrumandmiraculum,an unnatural feature in humans.

Prodigies were a type ofauspicia oblativa;that is, they were "thrust upon" observers, not deliberately sought.Suspected prodigies were reported as a civic duty. A system of official referrals filtered out those that seemed patently insignificant or false before the rest were reported to thesenate,who held further inquiry; this procedure was theprocuratio prodigiorum.Prodigies confirmed as genuine were referred to thepontiffsandaugursfor ritual expiation.For particularly serious or difficult cases, thedecemviri sacris faciundiscould seek guidance and suggestions from theSibylline Books.

The number of confirmed prodigies rose in troubled times. In 207 BC, during one of the worst crises of thePunic Wars,the senate dealt with an unprecedented number, the expiation of which would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.Major prodigies that year included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn. These were expiated by the sacrifice of "greater victims".The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep became goats; a hen become acock,and vice versa. The minor prodigies were duly expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of ahermaphroditicfour-year-old child was expiated by drowningand a holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple ofJuno Regina,singing a hymn to avert disaster; a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation.Religious restitution was proved only by Rome's victory.

The expiatoryburial of living human victimsin theForum Boariumfollowed Rome'sdefeat at Cannaein the same wars. In Livy's account, Rome's victory follows its discharge of religious duties to the gods.Livy remarked the scarcity of prodigies in his own day as a loss of communication between gods and men. In the later Republic and thereafter, the reporting of public prodigies was increasingly displaced by a "new interest in signs and omens associated with the charismatic individual."

profanum

Profanum(literally, 'in front of the shrine'), therefore not within a sacred precinct; not belonging to the gods but to humankind.

propitius

An adjective of augural terminology meaning favourable. Frompro-,"before", andpetere,"seek" but originally "fly". It indicates a pattern in the flight ofpraepetes aves,birds that make the auspices favorable by flying before the person who is taking them or by pointing in the direction of that which is wished for. A synonym issecundus,"favorable" or "following".

pulvinar

Thepulvinar(pluralpulvinaria) was a special couch used for displaying images of the gods, that they might receive offerings at ceremonies such as thelectisterniumorsupplicatio.In the famouslectisterniumof 217 BC, on orders of theSibylline books,sixpulvinariawere arranged, each for adivine male-female pair.By extension, pulvinar can also mean the shrine or platform housing several of these couches and their images. At theCircus Maximus,the couches and images of the gods were placed on an elevatedpulvinarto "watch" the games.

R

regina sacrorum

Theregina sacrorumis the wife of therex sacrorum,who served as a high priestess with her own specific religious duties.

religio

The wordreligiooriginally meant an obligation to the gods, something expected by them from human beings or a matter of particular care or concern as related to the gods.In this sense,religiomight be translated better as "religious scruple" than with the English word "religion".One definition ofreligiooffered byCiceroiscultus deorum,"the proper performance of rites in veneration of the gods."

Religioamong the Romans was not based on "faith",but on knowledge, including and especiallycorrect practice.Religio(pluralreligiones) was thepious practiceof Rome's traditional cults, and was a cornerstone of themos maiorum,the traditional social norms that regulated public, private, and military life. To the Romans, their success was self-evidently due to their practice of proper, respectfulreligio,which gave the godswhat was owed themand which was rewarded with social harmony, peace and prosperity.

Dedication fromRoman Britainannouncing that a local official has restored alocus religiosus

Religious law maintained the proprieties of divine honours, sacrifice and ritual. Impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual werevitia(faults, hence "vice," the English derivative); excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities, and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge weresuperstitio;neglecting thereligionesowed to the traditional gods wasatheism,a charge leveled during the Empire at Jews,Christians, and Epicureans.Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State.SeeReligion in ancient Rome.

religiosus

Religiosuswas something pertaining to the gods or marked out by them as theirs, as distinct fromsacer,which was something or someone given to them by humans. Hence, a graveyard was not primarily defined assacerbut alocus religiosus,because those who lay within its boundaries were considered belonging to thedi Manes.Places struck by lightning weretaboobecause they had been marked asreligiosusbyJupiterhimself.See alsosacerandsanctus.

res divinae

Res divinaewere "divine affairs," that is, the matters that pertained to the gods and the sphere of the divine in contrast tores humanae,"human affairs."Rem divinam facere,"to do a divine thing," simply meant to do something that pertained to the divine sphere, such as perform a ceremony or rite. The equivalentEtruscanterm isais(u)na.

The distinction between human and divinereswas explored in the multivolumeAntiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum,one of the chief works ofVarro(1st century BC). It survives only in fragments but was a major source of traditional Roman theology for theChurch Fathers.Varro devoted 25 books of theAntiquitatestores humanaeand 16 tores divinae.His proportional emphasis is deliberate, as he treats cult and ritual as human constructs.Varro dividesres divinaeinto three kinds:

• themythic theologyof the poets, or narrative elaboration;
• thenatural theologyof the philosophers, or theorizing on divinity among the intellectual elite;
• thecivil theologyconcerned with the relation of the state to the divine.

The schema isStoicin origin, though Varro has adapted it for his own purposes.

Res divinaeis an example of ancient Roman religious terminology that was appropriated for Christian usage; forSt. Augustine,res divinais a "divine reality" as represented by asacrum signum( "sacred sign" ) such as asacrament.

responsum

Responsa(plural) were the "responses," that is, the opinions and arguments, of the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. These were preserved in written form and archived.Comparedecretum.

rex sacrorum

Therex sacrorumwas a senatorial priesthoodreserved forpatricians.Although in the historical era thePontifex Maximuswas the head ofRoman state religion,Festussaysthat in theranking of priests,therex sacrorumwas of highest prestige, followed by theflamines maiores.

ritus

Althoughritusis the origin of the English word "rite" viaecclesiastical Latin,inclassical usageritusmeant the traditional and correct manner (of performance), that is, "way, custom".Festusdefines it as a specific form ofmos:"Ritusis the proven way(mos)in the performance of sacrifices. "The adverbritemeans "in good form, correctly."This original meaning ofritusmay be compared to the concept ofṛtá( "visible order", in contrast todhāman, dhārman) inVedic religion,a conceptual pairing analogous to Latinfasandius.

For Latin words meaning "ritual" or "rite", seesacra,caerimoniae,andreligiones.

ritus graecus

A small number of Roman religious practices and cult innovations were carried out according to "Greek rite"(ritus graecus),which the Romans characterized as Greek in origin or manner. A priest who conductedritu graecowore a Greek-style fringed tunic, with his head bare(capite aperto)orlaurel-wreathed.By contrast, in most rites of Roman public religion, an officiant wore the distinctively Romantoga,specially folded to cover his head (seecapite velato). Otherwise, "Greek rite" seems to have been a somewhat indefinite category, used for prayers uttered in Greek, and Greek methods of sacrifice within otherwise conventionally Roman cult.

Roman writers record elements ofritus graecusin the cult toHerculesat Rome'sAra Maxima,which according to tradition was established by the Greek kingEvandereven before the city of Rome was founded at the site. It thus represented one of the most ancient Roman cults. "Greek" elements were also found in theSaturnaliaheld in honor of the Golden Age deitySaturn,and in certain ceremonies of theLudi saeculares.A Greek rite toCeres(ritus graecus cereris) was imported fromMagna Graeciaand added to herexisting Aventine cultin accordance with theSibylline books,ancient oracles written in Greek. Official rites to Apollo are perhaps "the best illustration of theGraecus ritusin Rome. "

The Romans regardedritus graecusas part of their ownmos maiorum(ancestral tradition), and not asnovus aut externus ritus,novel or foreign rite. The thorough integration and reception of rite labeled "Greek" attests to the complex, multi-ethnic origins of Rome's people and religious life.

S

sacellum

Sacellum,adiminutivefromsacer( "belonging to a god" ),is a shrine.VarroandVerrius Flaccusgive explanations that seem contradictory, the former defining asacellumin its entirety as equivalent to acella,which is specifically an enclosed space, and the latter insisting that asacellumhad no roof."Thesacellum,"notesJörg Rüpke,"was both less complex and less elaborately defined than a temple proper."Eachcuriahad its ownsacellum.

sacer

See also:homo sacer

Sacerdescribes a thing or person given to the gods, thus "sacred" to them. Human beings had no legal or moral claims on anythingsacer.Sacercould be highly nuanced; Varro associates it with "perfection".Through association with ritual purity,sacercould also mean "sacred, untouchable, inviolable".

Anything notsacerwasprofanum:literally, "in front of (or outside) the shrine", therefore not belonging to it or the gods. A thing or person could be madesacer(consecrated), or could revert fromsacertoprofanum(deconsecrated), only through lawful rites(resecratio)performed by a pontiff on behalf of the state.Part of thever sacrumsacrificial vow of 217 BC stipulated that animals dedicated assacerwould revert to the condition ofprofanumif they died through natural cause or were stolen before the due sacrificial date. Similar conditions attached to sacrifices in archaic Rome.A thing already owned by the gods or actively marked out by them as divine property was distinguished asreligiosus,and hence could not be given to them or madesacer.

Persons judgedsacerunder Roman law were placed beyond further civil judgment, sentence and protection; their lives, families and properties were forfeit to the gods. A person could be declaredsacerwho harmed aplebeian tribune,failed to bear legal witness,failed to meet his obligations toclients,or illicitly moved the boundary markers of fields.It was not a religious duty(fas)to execute ahomo sacer,but he could be killed with impunity.

Dies sacri( "sacred days" ) werenefasti,meaning that the ordinary human affairs permitted ondies profani(orfasti) were forbidden.

Sacerwas a fundamental principle in Roman andItalicreligions. InOscan,related forms aresakoro,"sacred," andsakrim,"sacrificial victim". Oscansakaraklumis cognate with Latinsacellum,a small shrine, as Oscansakarateris with Latinsacratur, consecrare,"consecrated". Thesacerdosis "one who performs a sacred action" or "renders a thing sacred", that is, a priest.

Marcus Aureliuscapite velatocarries out a sacrifice. By his left side is aflamenwearing anapex.Thevictimais the bull, who will be struck by thepopato the right. The music of theauloswas to drive off inauspicious noise. The setting is theTemple of Capitoline Jupiter.

sacerdos

Asacerdos(pluralsacerdotes,a word of eithermasculine or feminine gender) was any priest or priestess, from*sakro-dho-ts,"the one who does the sacred act."There was no priestly caste in ancient Rome, and in some sense every citizen was a priest in that he presided over the domestic cult of his household.Senators,magistrates,and thedecurionsof towns performed ritual acts, though they were notsacerdotesper se.Thesacerdoswas one who held the title usually in relation to a specific deity or temple.See alsocollegiumandflamen.

sacra

Sacra(neuterplural ofsacer) are the traditional cult practices of classical Roman religion, eitherpublicaorprivata,both of which were overseen by theCollege of Pontiffs.

Thesacra publicawere those performed on behalf of the whole Roman people or its major subdivisions, thetribesandcuriae.They included thesacra pro populo,"rites on behalf of the Roman people," i.e., all theferiae publicaeof theRoman calendaryear and the other feasts that were regarded of public interest, including those pertaining to thehills of Rome,to thepagiandcuriae,and to thesacella,"shrines".The establishment of thesacra publicais ascribed to kingNuma Pompilius,but many are thought to be of earlier origin, even predating thefounding of Rome.Thus Numa may be seen as carrying out a reform and a reorganisation of thesacrain accord with his own views and his education.Sacra publicawere performed at the expense of the state, according to the dispositions left by Numa, and were attended by all the senators and magistrates.

Sacra privatawere particular to agens,to a family, or to an individual, and were carried out at the expense of those concerned. Individuals hadsacraon dates peculiar to them, such as birthdays, thedies lustricus,and at other times of their life such as funerals and expiations, for instance of fulgurations.Families had their ownsacrain the home or at the tombs of their ancestors, such as those pertaining to theLares,ManesandPenatesof the family, and theParentalia.These were regarded as necessary and imperishable, and the desire to perpetuate the family'ssacrawas among the reasons foradoption in adulthood.In some cases, the state assumed the expenses even ofsacra privata,if they were regarded as important to the maintenance of the Roman religious system as a whole; seesacra gentiliciafollowing.

sacra gentilicia

Sacra gentiliciawere the private rites (seesacraabove) that were particular to agens( "clan" ). These rites are related to a belief in the shared ancestry of the members of agens,since the Romans placed a high value on both family identity andcommemorating the dead.During theGallic siege of Rome,a member of thegens Fabiarisked his life to carry out thesacraof his clan on theQuirinal Hill;the Gauls were so impressed by his courageous piety that they allowed him to pass through their lines.The Fabiansacrawere performed inGabinedress by a member of thegenswho was possibly named aflamen.There weresacraofMinervain the care of theNautii,and rites ofApollothat theIuliioversaw.TheClaudiihad recourse to a distinctive "propudial pig" sacrifice(propudialis porcus,"pig of shame" ) by way of expiation when they neglected any of their religious obligations.

Roman practices of adoption,including so-called "testamentary adoption"when an adult heir was declared in a will, were aimed at perpetuating thesacra gentiliciaas well as preserving the family name and property.A person adopted into another family usually renounced thesacraof his birth (seedetestatio sacrorum) in order to devote himself to those of his new family.

Sacra gentiliciasometimes acquired public importance, and if thegenswere in danger of dying out, the state might take over their maintenance. One of the myths attached toHercules' time in Italyexplainedwhy his cult at theAra Maximawas in the care of thepatriciangens Potitiaand thegens Pinaria;the diminution of these families by 312 BC caused thesacrato be transferred to the keeping ofpublic slavesand supported with public funding.

sacra municipalia

Thesacraof an Italian town or community(municipium)might be perpetuated under the supervision of theRoman pontiffswhen the locality was brought under Roman rule.Festusdefinedmunicipalia sacraas "those owned originally, before the granting ofRoman citizenship;the pontiffs desired that the people continue to observe them and to practice them in the way(mos)they had been accustomed to from ancient times. "Thesesacrawere regarded as preserving the core religious identity of a particular people.

sacramentum

Main article:Sacramentum (oath)

Sacramentumis anoathor vow that rendered the swearersacer,"given to the gods," in the negative sense if he violated it.Sacramentumalso referred to a thing that was pledged as a sacredbond,and consequently forfeit if the oath were violated.Both instances imply an underlyingsacratio,act of consecration.

InRoman law,a thing given as a pledge or bond was asacramentum.Thesacramentum legis actiowas a sum of money deposited in a legal procedureto affirm that both parties to the litigation were acting in good faith.If correct law and procedures had been followed, it could be assumed that the outcome wasiustum,right or valid. The losing side had thus in effect committedperjury,and forfeited hissacramentumas a form ofpiaculum;the winner got his deposit back. The forfeitedsacramentumwas normally allotted by the state to the funding ofsacra publica.

Thesacramentum militare(also asmilitumormilitiae) was the oath taken by soldiers in pledging their loyalty to the consul or emperor. Thesacramentumthat renders the soldiersacerhelps explain why he was subjected to harsher penalties, such as execution and corporal punishment, that were considered inappropriate for civilian citizens, at least under theRepublic.In effect, he had put his life on deposit, a condition also of the fearsomesacramentumsworn bygladiators.In the later empire, the oath of loyalty created conflict for Christians serving in the military, and produced a number ofsoldier-martyrs.Sacramentumis the origin of the English word "sacrament",a transition in meaning pointed to byApuleius's use of the word to refer toreligious initiation.

Thesacramentumas pertaining to both the military and the law indicates the religious basis for these institutions. The term differs fromiusiurandum,which is more common in legal application, as for instance swearing an oath in court. Asacramentumestablishes a direct relation between the person swearing (or the thing pledged in the swearing of the oath) and the gods; theiusiurandumis an oath of good faith within the human community that is in accordance withiusas witnessed by the gods.

sacrarium

Asacrariumwas a place where sacred objects(sacra)were stored or deposited for safekeeping.The word can overlap in meaning withsacellum,a small enclosed shrine; thesacellaof theArgeiare also calledsacraria.In Greek writers, the word is ἱεροφυλάκιονhierophylakion(hiero-,"sacred" andphylakion,something that safeguards).Seesacellumfor a list ofsacraria.

Thesacrariumof a private home lent itself to Christian transformation, as a 4th-century poem byAusoniusdemonstrates;in contemporary Christian usage, the sacrarium is a "special sink used for the reverent disposal of sacred substances" (seepiscina).

sacrificium

An event or thing dedicated to the gods for their disposal. The offer of sacrifice is fundamental toreligio.See alsoSacerandReligion in ancient Rome: Sacrifice.

sacrosanctus

TheValerio-Horatian lawsof 449 BC introduced the adjectivesacrosanctusto define the inviolability of the power(potestas)of thetribunes of the plebsand of other magistrates sanctioned by law (Livy 3.55.1). The sacrality of the tribune's function had been established in earlier times through areligioand asacramentum(Livy 2.33.1; 3.19.10), but it obliged only the contracting parties. To make it an obligation for everyone required asanctiothat was not only civil but religious: the trespasser was to be declaredsacer,and his family and property sold, according to the Greek historianDionysius(6.89.3).Sacerthus defined the religious compact, andsanctusthe law. According to other passages in Livy, the law was not approved of by some jurists of the time, who maintained that only those who infringed the commonly recognised divine laws could fall into the category of those to be declaredsacri.Elsewhere Livy states (Livy 4.3.6, 44.5; 20.20.11) that only thepotestasand not the person of the tribune wassacrosancta.The critics of the law objected, "These people postulate they themselves should besacrosancti,they who do not hold even gods for sacred and saint? "

H. Fugier gives the meaning ofsacrosanctusasguaranteed by an oath,but M. Morani interprets the first part of the compound as a consequence of the second:sanxit tribunum sacrum,the tribune is sanctioned by the law assacer.This kind of word composition based on an etymological figure has parallels in other IE languages in archaic constructions.

Salii

TheSaliiwere the "leaping priests" of Mars.

sancio

A verb meaning to ratify a compact and put it under the protection of asanctio,a sanction or penalty. The formation and original meaning of the verb are debated. Some scholars think it is derived from the IE stem *sak(the same assacer) through the insertion of a nasalninfix and the suffix -yo.Thencesanciowould mean to render somethingsacer,i.e. belonging to the gods in the sense of having their guarantee and protection.Others think it is a derivation from the theonymSancus,the god of the ratification offoedera(treaties) and the protection of good faith, from the rootsancu-plus suffix-io.In that case, the verb would mean an act that reflects or conforms to the function of this god, i.e. the ratifying and guaranteeing of compacts.

sanctus

Sanctus,an adjective formed on the past participle of the verbsancio,describes that which has been "established as inviolable" or "sacred", most times in a sense different from that ofsacerandreligiosus.Its original meaning would be "that which is protected by a sanction" (sanctio). The concept is connected to the name of theUmbrian or Sabinefounder-deitySancus,in UmbrianSancius,whose most noted function was the ratifying and protecting of treaties (foedera).

The Roman juristUlpiandistinguishessanctusas "neither sacred (sacer) nor profane (profanum)... nor [is it]religiosus."Gaiuswrites that a building dedicated to a god issacrum,but a town's wall and gate areres sanctaebecause they belong "in some way" to divine law, while a graveyard isreligiosusbecause it is relinquished to thedi Manes.Some scholars think thatsanctuswas originally a concept related to space as concerning inaugurated places, because they enjoyed the armed protection (sanctio) of the gods.

Various deities, objects, places and people – especiallysenatorsandmagistrates– can besanctus.Claudia Quintais described as asanctissima femina(most virtuous woman) andCato the Youngeras asanctus civis(a morally upright citizen).See alsosanctuary.

Later the epithetsanctusis given to many gods includingApollo PythiusbyNaevius,VenusandTiberinusbyEnniusandLivy.Ennius renders theHomericdia theaoonassancta dearum.In the earlyImperial era,OviddescribesTerminus,the god who sanctifies land boundaries, assanctusand equatessanctawithaugusta(august).The use ofsanctusas an epithet of the river Tiber and of the boundary god Terminus retains the original and ancient sense of delineating space: borders aresanctiby definition, and rivers often mark borders.

Sanctusas applied to people over time came to share some of the sense of Latincastus(morally pure or guiltless) andpius(pious), with none of the ambiguity attached tosacerandreligiosus.

Inecclesiastical Latin,sanctusis the word forsaint,but even in the Christian era it continues to appear inepitaphsfor people who had not converted to Christianity.

servare de caelo

Literally, "to watch (for something) from the sky"; that is, to observe thetemplumof the sky for signs that might be interpreted as auspices. Bad omens resulted in a report ofobnuntiatio.

signum

Asignumis a "sign, token or indication".In religious use,signumprovides a collective term for events or things (including signs and symbols) that designate divine identity, activity or communication, includingprodigia,auspicia,omina,portentaandostenta.

silentium

Silence was generally required in the performance of every religious ritual.The ritual injunctionfavete linguis,"be favourable with your tongues," meant "keep silent." In particular, silence assured the ritual correctness and the absence ofvitia,"faults," in the taking of the auspices.It was also required in the nomination (dictio) of thedictator.

sinister

In ancient times,augurs(augures ex caelo) faced south, so the happy orient, where the sun rose, lay at their left. Consequently, the wordsinister(Latin for left) meant well-fated. When, under Greek influence, it became customary for augurs to face north, sinister came to indicate the ill-fated west, where light turned into darkness. It is this latter and later meaning that is attached to the English word sinister.

sodalitas

Asodalitaswas a form of voluntary association or society. Its meaning is not necessarily distinct fromcollegiumin ancient sources, and is found also insodalicium,"fraternity."Thesodalisis a member of asodalitas,which describes the relationship amongsodalesrather than an institution. Examples of priestlysodalitatesare theLuperci,fetiales,Arval brothersandTitii;these are also calledcollegia,but that they were a kind ofconfraternityis suggested by the distinctiveconvivialsongassociated with some.An association ofsodalesmight also form aburial society,or make religious dedications as a group;inscriptionsrecord donations made by women for the benefit ofsodales.RomanPythagoreanssuch asNigidius Figulusformedsodalicia,with whichAmmianus Marcellinuscompared the fellowship(sodalicia consortia)of thedruidsinGallo-Roman culture.When the cult ofCybelewas imported to Rome, theeunuchismof her priests thegallidiscouraged Roman men from forming an official priesthood; instead, they joinedsodalitatesto hold banquets and other forms of traditional Romancultusin her honor.

Thesodalitatesare thought to originate as aristocratic brotherhoods with cultic duties, and their existence is attested as early as the late 6th or early 5th century BC. TheTwelve Tablesregulated their potential influence by forbidding them to come in conflict with public law(ius publicum).During the 60s BC, certain forms ofassociations were disbanded by lawas politically disruptive, and in Ciceronian usagesodalitatesmay refer either to these subversive organizations or in a religious context to the priestly fraternities.See alsoSodales Augustales.For theCatholicconcept, seesodality.

spectio

Spectio( "watching, sighting, observation" ) was the seeking of omens through observing the sky, the flight of birds, or the feeding of birds. Originally onlypatricianmagistratesandaugurswere entitled to practicespectio,which carried with it the power to regulate assemblies and other aspects of public life, depending on whether the omens were good or bad.See alsoobnuntiatio.

sponsio

Duenos inscription

Sponsiois a formal, religiously guaranteed obligation. It can mean bothbetrothalas pledged by a woman's family, and amagistrate's solemn promise in international treaties on behalf of theRoman people.

The Latin word derives from aProto-Indo-Europeanroot meaning alibationof wine offered to the gods, as does theGreekverbspendooand the nounspondai, spondas,andHittitespant-.In Greek it also acquired the meaning "compact, convention, treaty" (compare Latinfoedus), as these were sanctioned with a libation to the gods on an altar. In Latin,sponsiobecomes a legal contract between two parties, or sometimes afoedusbetween two nations.

In legal Latin thesponsioimplied the existence of a person who acted as asponsor,a guarantor for the obligation undertaken by somebody else. The verb isspondeo, sponsus.Related words aresponsalia,the ceremony of betrothal;sponsa,fiancée; andsponsus,both thesecond-declensionnoun meaning a husband-to-be and the fourth declension abstract meaningsuretyship.The ceremonial character ofsponsiosuggeststhat Latin archaicforms of marriagewere, like theconfarreatioofRoman patricians,religiously sanctioned.Dumézilproposed that the oldest extant Latin document, theDuenos inscription,could be interpreted in light ofsponsio.

superstitio

Superstitiowas excessive devotion and enthusiasm in religious observance, in the sense of "doing or believing more than was necessary",or "irregular" religious practice that conflicted with Roman custom. "Religiosity"in its pejorative sense may be a better translation than"superstition",the English word derived from the Latin.Cicerodefinedsuperstitioas the "empty fear of the gods"(timor inanis deorum)in contrast to the properly pious cultivation of the gods that constituted lawfulreligio,a view thatSenecaexpressed as "religiohonours the gods,superstitiowrongs them. "Seneca wrote an entire treatise onsuperstitio,known toSt. Augustinebut no longer extant.Lucretius's famous condemnation of what is often translated as "Superstition" in hisEpicureandidactic epicDe rerum naturais actually directed atReligio.

Before the Christian era,superstitiowas seen as a vice of individuals. Practices characterized as "magic"could be a form ofsuperstitioas an excessive and dangerous quest for personal knowledge.By the early 2nd century AD, religions of other peoples that were perceived as resistant toreligious assimilationbegan to be labeled by some Latin authors assuperstitio,includingdruidism,Judaism, and Christianity.Under Christian hegemony,religioandsuperstitiowere redefined as a dichotomy between Christianity, viewed as truereligio,and thesuperstitionesor false religions of those who declined to convert.

supplicatio

Supplicationesare days of public prayer when the men, women, and children of Rome traveled in procession to religious sites around the city praying for divine aid in times of crisis. Asuplicatiocan also be a thanksgiving after the receipt of aid.Supplications might also be ordered in response to prodigies; again, the population as a whole wore wreaths, carried laurel twigs, and attended sacrifices at temple precincts throughout the city.

T

tabernaculum

Seeauguraculum.The origin of the English word "tabernacle."

templum

See also:Roman temple

Atemplumwas the sacred space defined by anaugurfor ritual purposes, most importantly the taking of the auspices, a place "cut off" assacred:compare Greektemenos,fromtemneinto cut.It could be created as temporary or permanent, depending on the lawful purpose of theinauguration.Auspicesandsenatemeetings were unlawful unless held in atemplum;if the senate house (Curia) was unavailable, an augur could apply the appropriate religious formulae to provide a lawful alternative.

To create atemplum,the augur aligned his zone of observation (auguraculum,a square, portable surround) with the cardinal points of heaven and earth. The altar and entrance were sited on the east-west axis: the sacrificer faced east. The precinct was thus "defined and freed" (effatumetliberatum).In most cases, signs to the augur's left (north) showed divine approval and signs to his right (south), disapproval.Temple buildings of stone followed this ground-plan and were sacred in perpetuity.

Rome itself was a kind oftemplum,with thepomeriumas sacred boundary and thearx(citadel), andQuirinalandPalatinehills as reference points whenever a specially dedicatedtemplumwas created within. Augurs had authority to establish multipletemplabeyond thepomerium,using the same augural principles.

V

verba certa

Verba certa(also found nearly as often with the word ordercerta verba) are the "exact words" of a legal or religious formula, that is, the words as "set once and for ever, immutable and unchangeable." Comparecertae precationes,fixed prayers ofinvocation,andverba concepta,which in bothRoman civil lawand augural law described a verbal formula that could be "conceived" flexibly to suit the circumstances.With their emphasis on exact adherence, the archaicverba certaare a magico-religious form of prayer.In a ritual context, prayer (prex) was not a form of personal spontaneous expression, but a demonstration that the speaker knew the correct thing to say. Words were regarded as having power; in order to be efficacious, the formula had to be recited accurately, in full, and with the correct pronunciation. To reduce the risk of error (vitium), themagistrateor priest who spoke was prompted from the text by an assistant.

verba concepta

In both religious and legal usage,verba concepta( "preconceived words" ) were verbal formulas that could be adapted for particular circumstances. Compareverba certa,"fixed words." Collections ofverba conceptawould have been part of theaugural archives.Varropreserves an example, albeittextually vexed,of a formula for founding atemplum.

In the legal sense,concepta verba(the phrase is found with either word order) were the statements crafted by a presidingpraetorfor the particulars of a case.Earlier in the Roman legal system, theplaintiffhad to state his claim within a narrowly defined set of fixed phrases(certa verba);in theMid Republic,more flexible formulas allowed a more accurate description of the particulars of the issue under consideration. But the practice may have originated as a kind of "dodge," since a praetor was liable to religious penalties if he usedcerta verbaforlegal actionson days markednefastuson the calendar.

St. Augustineremoved the phraseverba conceptafrom its religious and legal context to describe the cognitive process of memory: "When a true narrative of the past is related, the memory produces not the actual events which have passed away but words conceived(verba concepta)from images of them, which they fixed in the mind like imprints as they passed through the senses. "Augustine's conceptualizing of memory as verbal has been used to elucidate the Western tradition of poetry and its shared origins with sacred song and magical incantation (see alsocarmen), and is less a departure from Roman usage than a recognition of the original relation between formula and memory in a pre-literate world.Some scholars see the tradition of stylized, formulaic language as the verbal tradition from whichLatin literaturedevelops, withconcepta verbaappearing in poems such asCarmen34 ofCatullus.

ver sacrum

The "sacred spring"was a ritual migration.

victima

Victimae for asuovetaurilialed to the altar byvictimarii

Thevictimawas theanimal offeringin a sacrifice, or very rarely a human. The victim was subject to an examination (probatio victimae) by a lower-rank priest (pontifex minor) to determine whether it met the criteria for a particular offering.With some exceptions, male deities received castrated animals. Goddesses were usually offered female victims, though from around the 160s AD the goddessCybelewas given a bull, along with its blood and testicles, in theTaurobolium.Color was also a criterion: white for the upper deities, dark forchthonic,red forVulcanand at theRobigalia.A sacred fiction of sacrifice was that the victim had to consent, usually by a nod of the head perhaps induced by thevictimariusholding the halter. Fear, panic, and agitation in the animal were badomens.

The wordvictimais used interchangeably withhostiabyOvidand others, but some ancient authors attempt to distinguish between the two.Serviussaysthat thehostiais sacrificed before battle, thevictimaafterward, which accords with Ovid'setymologyof "victim" as that which has been killed by the right hand of the "victor" (withhostiarelated tohostis,"enemy" ).

The difference between thevictimaandhostiais elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with thevictimalarger (maior).See alsopiaculumandvotum.

victimarius

Main article:victimarius

Thevictimariuswas an attendant or assistant at a sacrifice who handled the animal.Using a rope, he led the pig, sheep, or bovine that was to serve as the victim to the altar. In depictions of sacrifice, avictimariuscalled thepopacarries a mallet or axe with which to strike thevictima.Multiplevictimariiare sometimes in attendance; one may hold down the victim's head while the other lands the blow.Thevictimariussevered the animal's carotid with a ritual knife (culter), and according to depictions was offered a hand towel afterwards by another attendant. He is sometimes shown dressed in an apron (limus). Inscriptions show that mostvictimariiwere freedmen, but literary sources inlate antiquitysay that thepopawas a public slave.

vitium

A mistake made while performing a ritual, or a disruption of augural procedure, including disregarding the auspices, was avitium( "defect, imperfection, impediment" ).Vitia,plural, could taint the outcome of elections, the validity of laws, and the conducting of military operations. Theaugursissued an opinion on a givenvitium,but these were not necessarily binding. In 215 BC the newly electedplebeianconsulM. Claudius Marcellusresigned when the augurs and thesenatedecided that a thunderclap expressed divine disapproval of his election.The original meaning of the semantic root invitiummay have been "hindrance", related to the verbvito, vitare,"to go out of the way"; the adjective formvitiosuscan mean "hindering", that is, "vitiating, faulty."

vitulari

A verb meaning chanting or reciting a formula with a joyful intonation and rhythm.The relatednounVitulatiowas an annual thanksgiving offering carried out by thepontiffson 8 July, the day after theNonae Caprotinae.These were commemorations of Roman victory in the wake of theGallic invasion.Macrobiussaysvitulariis the equivalent of Greekpaianizein(παιανίζειν), "to sing apaean",a song expressing triumph or thanksgiving.

votum

In a religious context,votum,pluralvota,is a vow or promise made to a deity. The word comes from thepast participleofvoveo, vovere;as the result of the verbal action "vow, promise", it may refer also to the fulfillment of this vow, that is, the thing promised. Thevotumis thus an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion, a bargaining expressed bydo ut des,"I give that you might give."

See also

• Religion in ancient Rome
• Imperial cult (ancient Rome)
• Roman festivals,on religious holidays
• Roman polytheistic reconstructionism