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Pechenegs

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This article is about the Turkic tribe. For the Russian weapon, seePecheneg machine gun.
Pechenegs
The Pechenegs slaughter theVarangianarmy ofRus,from theMadrid Skylitzes.
Regions with significant populations
Eastern Europe,Anatolia(historical)
Languages
Pecheneg language(historical)
Religion
Christianity(in the Balkans, Anatolia) andTengrism(historical);Islam(in Anatolia, Balkans)
Related ethnic groups
OtherOghuz TurksandCumans
Pecheneg Khanates
889–1091
Pecheneg Khanates and neighbouring territories, c.1030
Pecheneg Khanates and neighbouring territories, c.1030
StatusKhanate
Common languagesPecheneg
History
• Established
889
• Disestablished
1091
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Khazar Khaganate
Kipchaks
History of the Turkic peoplespre–14th century
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
Turkic peoples
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Utigurs
Bulgars
Sabir
Kutrigurs
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Karachay-Balkar
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Turkic Mythology
Belief system:TengrismandShamanism
Chief gods and goddesses:KayraandÜlgen
Epics and heroes:ErgenekonandAsena
Major concepts:ShekaandGrey wolf
Pre-14th century
Yenisei Kyrgyz People202 BCE–13th CE
Dingling71 BC–?? AD
Göktürks

(Tokhara Yabghus,Turk Shahis)

Sabiri People
Khazar Khaganate618–1048
Xueyantuo628–646
Kangar Union659–750
Turk Shahi665-850
Türgesh Khaganate699–766
Kimek–Kipchak Confederation743–1035
Uyghur Khaganate744–840
Oghuz Yabgu State750–1055
Karluk Yabgu State756–940
Kara-Khanid Khanate840–1212
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom848–1036
Qocho856–1335
Pecheneg Khanates860–1091
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Ottoman State1299–1922

ThePechenegs(/ˈpɛtʃənɛɡ/) orPatzinaks[note 1]were a semi-nomadicTurkicpeople fromCentral Asiawho spoke thePecheneg language.In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Pechenegs controlled much of the steppes of southeastEuropeand theCrimean Peninsula.In the 9th century the Pechenegs began a period of wars againstKievan Rus',and for more than two centuries launched raids into the lands of Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars.

Ethnonym

[edit]

The Pechenegs were mentioned asBjnak,BjanakorBajanakin medievalArabicandPersiantexts, asBe-ča-naginClassical Tibetandocuments, and asPačanak-iin works written inGeorgian.[1]Anna Komneneand other Byzantine authors referred to them asPatzinakoiorPatzinakitai.[1]Inmedieval Latintexts, the Pechenegs were referred to asPizenaci,BisseniorBessi.[1]East Slavic peoplesuse the termsPečenegiorPečenezi(plural ofPečeneg), while thePolesmention them asPieczyngowieorPiecinigi.[1]The Hungarian word for Pecheneg isBesenyő;the Romanian term isPecenegi.[1]

According toMax Vasmerand some other researchers theethnonymmay have derived from theOld Turkicword for "brother-in-law, relative” (baja,baja-naqorbajinaq;Azerbaijani:bacanaq,Kyrgyz:baja,Turkmen:bajaandTurkish:bacanak), implying that it initially referred to an "in-law related clan or tribe".[1][2]Peter Goldenconsiders this derivation by no means certain.[3]

InMahmud Kashgari's 11th-century workDīwān Lughāt al-Turk,Pechenegs were described as "a Turkic nation living around the country ofthe Rum",whereRumwas the Turkic word for theEastern Roman EmpireorAnatolia,and "a branch ofOghuz Turks";he subsequently described the Oghuz as being formed of 22 branches, of which the Pecheneg were the 19th.[4]

Pechenegs are mentioned as one of 24 ancient tribes ofOghuzesby 14th-century statesman and historian ofIlkhanate-ruled IranRashid-al-Din Hamadaniin his workJāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh( "Compendium of Chronicles" ) with the meaning of the ethnonym as "the one who shows eagerness". The 17th-centuryKhanof theKhanate of Khivaand historianAbu al-Ghazi Bahadurmentions the Pechenegs asbecheneamong 24 ancient tribes ofTurkmens(or Oghuzes) in his bookShajara-i Tarākima( “Genealogy of the Turkmen" ) and provides for its meaning as "the one who makes".

Three of the eight Pecheneg "provinces" or clans were collectively known asKangars.[5]According toConstantine VII Porphyrogenitus,the Kangars received this denomination because "they are more valiant and noble than the rest" of the people "and that is what the title Kangar signifies".[5][6]Because no Turkic word with a similar meaning is known,Ármin Vámbéryconnected the ethnonym to theKyrgyzwordskangir( "agile" ),kangirmak( "to go out riding" ) andkani-kara( "black-blooded" ), whileCarlile Aylmer Macartneyassociated it with theChagataiwordgang( "chariot" ),[7]semantically related to the TurkicGaoche.[8]

Omeljan Pritsakproposed that the name had initially been a composite term(Kängär As,mentioned in Old Turkic texts) deriving from theTocharianword for stone(kank)and the ethnonymAs,suggesting that they were Tocharian-speaking or at least formed a confederation consisting of Tocharian,Eastern IranianandBulgaric Turkicelements. Their connection with Eastern Iranian elements is hinted at in the remark ofal-Biruniregarding a people that "are of the race of al-Lān and that of al-Ās and their language is a mixture of the languages ofKhwarazmiansand the Badjanak. ".[9]

If the latter assumption is valid, the Kangars' ethnonym suggests that (East) Iranian elements contributed to the formation of the Pecheneg people butSpineiconcedes that Pechenegs were of "a predominantly Turkic character... beyond any doubt".[10][11]This may be mirrored in theOld Rus translationofJosephus Flavius(ed. Meshcherskiy, 454) which adds "theYas,as is known, descended from the Pecheneg tribe. "On the basis of their fragmentary linguistic remains, scholars view them asCommon Turkic-speakers, most probablyKipchak(Németh,followed byLigeti)[12]orOguz(Baskakov).[13]Hammer-Purgstallclassifies the ChineseKangjuand ByzantineKangaras purely Turkic name variants of theKangly;[14]however,Wang Pu's institutional historical workTang Huiyaoapparently distinguishes theKang(ju)from theKangheli(akaKangly).[15]Mengessaw inKang-ar-asthe plural-suffix-as,and Klyashtorny the Turkic numerus collectivus-ar-,-er-.[16][17]

Language

[edit]
Main article:Pecheneg language

Mahmud al-Kashgari,an 11th-century man of letters who specialized in Turkic dialects argued that the language spoken by the Pechenegs was a variant of theCumanandOghuzidioms.[18]He suggested that foreign influences on the Pechenegs gave rise to phonetical differences between their tongue and the idiom spoken by other Turkic peoples.[19]Anna Komnene likewise stated that the Pechenegs and the Cumans shared a common language.[18]Although the Pecheneg language itself died out centuries ago,[20]the names of the Pecheneg "provinces" recorded by Constantine Porphyrogenitus prove that the Pechenegs spoke a Turkic language.[21]The Pechenegs are thought to have belonged to theOghuzbranch of theTurkic family,but their language is poorly documented and therefore difficult to further classify.[22]

Composition

[edit]

Byzantine emperorConstantine VIIPorphyrogennetoslists eight Pecheneg tribal groupings, four on each side of theDnieper river,reflecting the bipartite left-right Turkic organization. These eight tribes were in turn divided into 40 sub-tribes, probably clans. Constantine VII also records the names of eight former tribal leaders who had been leading the Pechenegs when they were expelled by theKhazarsandOghuzes.Golden,followingNémethandLigeti,proposes that each tribal name consists of two parts: the first part being anequine coat color,the other the tribal ruler's title.[23]

The Erdim, Čur, and Yula tribes formed theQangar/Kenger(Greek:Καγγαρ) and were deemed "more valiant and noble than the rest".

Tribal Compositions
Transcribed tribal name Reconstructed tribal name Meaning Location Transcribed leader's name Reconstructed leader's name
Ιαβδι-ερτί(μ) *Yavdı[a]-Erdim[b] Tribe of the Erdem[c]with brilliant, shining horses Dniepr's west bank Βαϊτζαν *Bay[d]-ča
Κουαρτζι-τζούρ *Küerči[e]-Čur Tribe of the Čur with bluish horses Dniepr's east bank Κούελ *Küğel[f]
Χαβουξιν-γυλά *Qabuqšın-Yula or *Khabuži/Kapuži-Jula[g] Tribe of theYulawith bark-colored horses Dniepr's west bank Κουρκοῡται *Qorqutai[h]
Συρου-κουλπέη *Suru-Kül-Bey Tribe of the Kül-Bey with grayish horses Dniepr's east bank Ιπαόν *Ipa / *Iba (?),[i]
Χαρα-βοη *Qara-Bay Tribe of theBeywith black horses Dniepr's west bank Καϊδούμ *Qaydum[j]
Βορο-ταλμάτ *Boru-Tolmač Tribe of the Tolmač[k]with grayish horses Dniepr's east bank Κώσταν *Qosta[l]
Γιαζι-χοπὸν *Yazı-Qap(ğ)an Tribe of theQap(ğ)anwith dark-brown horses Dniepr's west bank Γιαζή *Yazı[m]
Βουλα-τζοπόν *Bula-Čopan[n] Tribe of theČopanwith piebald horses Dniepr's east bank Βατᾱν *Bata / *Bota[o]

Notes

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  1. ^or "Yawdı"
  2. ^or "Erdem"
  3. ^bravery, virtue
  4. ^wealthy
  5. ^Fromküverči<küğerči
  6. ^bright-green
  7. ^Possibly not an equine coat color; cf.Ottoman Turkishقاپو‎kapu"door, gate,Porte",Hung.kapu"gate, entrance, door". If so, this tribe was the guardians of the Pechenegs to the west.[24]
  8. ^Fromqorqut-"to frighten"
  9. ^cf. Hung.Ipoch;may be Ipa + Hung. dim. suffix -cs (-ç).[25]
  10. ^Fromqayt-<qayıt-<qaðıt-"to turn back"; cf. Hung.Kajdan
  11. ^"interpreter, translator"
  12. ^cf.Sağayqosta"foe-seeking magical arrow" (?)
  13. ^FromYazığ,metathesis ofYağız
  14. ^or "Čaban"
  15. ^"small camel"

History

[edit]

Origins and area

[edit]

According toOmeljan Pritsak,the Pechenegs are descendants from the ancient Kangars who originate fromTashkent.TheOrkhon inscriptionslisted the Kangars among the subject peoples of theEastern Turkic Khaganate.Pritsak says that the Pechenegs' homeland was located between theAral Seaand the middle course of the Syr Darya, along the important trade routes connecting Central Asia with Eastern Europe, and associates them withKangars.[26]

According toConstantine Porphyrogenitus,writing in c. 950, Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretched west as far as theSiret River(or even the EasternCarpathian Mountains), and was four days distant from "Tourkias" (i.e.Hungary).

The whole of Patzinakia is divided into eight provinces with the same number of great princes. The provinces are these: the name of the first province is Irtim; of the second, Tzour; of the third, Gyla; of the fourth, Koulpeï; of the fifth, Charaboï; of the sixth, Talmat; of the seventh, Chopon; of the eighth, Tzopon. At the time at which the Pechenegs were expelled from their country, their princes were, in the province of Irtim, Baïtzas; in Tzour, Kouel; in Gyla, Kourkoutai; in Koulpeï, Ipaos; in Charaboï, Kaïdoum; in the province of Talmat, Kostas; in Chopon, Giazis; in the province of Tzopon, Batas.

— Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio[27]
ThePontic steppes,c. 1015

Paul Pelliotoriginated the proposal that theBook of Sui—a 7th-century Chinese work—preserved the earliest record on the Pechenegs.[28]The book mentioned a people namedBĕirù,who had settled near theĒnqūandAlanpeoples (identified asOnogursandAlans,respectively), to the east ofFulin(or theEastern Roman Empire).[28][29][30]Victor Spineiemphasizes that the Pechenegs' association with theBĕirùis "uncertain".[29]He proposes that an 8th-century Uighur envoy's report, which survives in Tibetan translation,[31]contains the first certain reference to the Pechenegs.[29]The report recorded an armed conflict between theBe-ča-nagand theHor(UyghursorOghuz Turks) peoples in the region of the riverSyr Darya.[29][32]

Ibn Khordadbeh(c. 820 – 912 CE),Mahmud al-Kashgari(11th century),Muhammad al-Idrisi(1100–1165), and many otherMuslimscholars agree that the Pechenegs belonged to the Turkic peoples.[33]TheRussian Primary Chroniclestated that the "Torkmens,Pechenegs,Torks,andPolovcians"descended from" the godless sons ofIshmael,who had been sent as a chastisement to the Christians ".[34][35]

Westward migration

[edit]
Europe 1097

TheTurkic Khaganatecollapsed in 744 which gave rise to a series of intertribal confrontations in theEurasian steppes.[36]TheKarluksattacked theOghuz Turks,forcing them to launch a westward migration towards the Pechenegs' lands.[36]The Uighur envoy's report testifies that the Oghuz and Pecheneg waged war against each other already in the 8th century, most probably for the control of the trade routes.[36]The Oghuz made an alliance with the Karluks andKimaksand defeated the Pechenegs and their allies in a battle near the Lake Aral before 850, according to the 10th-century scholar,Al-Masudi.[36]Most Pechenegs launched a new migration towards theVolga River,but some groups were forced to join the Oghuz. The latter formed the 19th tribe of theOghuz tribal federationin the 11th century.[36][2]

The Pechenegs who left their homeland settled between theUraland Volga rivers. According toGardiziand other Muslim scholars who based their works on 9th-century sources, the Pechenegs' new territory was quite large, with a 30-day-walk extension, and were bordered by theCumans,Khazars,Oghuz Turks andSlavs.[37][38]

Tamgaof Pecheneg tribe as perAbul-Ghazi's «Genealogy of Turkmens»

The same sources also narrate that the Pechenegs made regular raids against their neighbors, in particular against the Khazars and the latter's vassals, theBurtas,and sold their captives.[39][40]The Khazars made an alliance with the Ouzes against the Pechenegs and attacked them from two directions. Outnumbered by the enemy, the Pechenegs were forced into a new westward migration.[9][29][41]They marched across the Khazar Khaganate, invaded the dwelling places of theHungarians,andexpelled themfrom the lands along theKuban Riverand the upper course of the riverDonets.[37][41]There is no consensual date for this second migration of the Pechenegs: Pritsak argues that it took place around 830,[39]but Kristó suggests that it could hardly occur before the 850s.[42]

The Pechenegs settled along the riversDonetsandKuban.[39]It is plausible that the distinction between the "Turkic Pechenegs" and "Khazar Pechenegs" mentioned in the 10th-centuryHudud al-'alamhad its origin in this period.[39]TheHudud al-'Alam—a late 10th-century Persian geography—distinguished two Pecheneg groups, referring to those who lived along the Donets as "Turkic Pechenegs", and to those along the Kuban as "Khazarian Pechenegs".[9]Spinei proposes that the latter denomination most probably refers to Pecheneg groups accepting Khazar suzerainty, implies that some Pecheneg tribes had been forced to acknowledge the Khazars supremacy.[29]

In addition to these two branches, a third group of Pechenegs existed in this period: Constantine Porphyrogenitus andIbn Fadlanmention that those who decided not to leave their homeland were incorporated into the Oghuz federation of Turkic tribes.[2][39]

Originally, the Pechenegs had their dwelling on the river Atil (Volga), and likewise on the riverGeïch,having common frontiers with the Chazars and the so-called Uzes. But fifty years ago the so-called Uzes made common cause with the Chazars and joined battle with the Pechenegs and prevailed over them and expelled them from their country, which the so-called Uzes have occupied till this day. [...] At the time when the Pechenegs were expelled from their country, some of them of their own will and personal decision stayed behind there and united with the so-called Uzes, and even to this day they live among them, and wear such distinguishing marks as separate them off and betray their origin and how it came about that they were split off from their own folk: for their tunics are short, reaching to the knee, and their sleeves are cut off at the shoulder, whereby, you see, they indicate that they have been cut off from their own folk and those of their race.

— Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio[43]

However, it is uncertain whether this group's formation is connected to the Pechenegs' first or second migration (as it is proposed by Pritsak and Golden, respectively).[2][39]According to Mahmud al-Kashgari, one of the Üçok clans of the Oghuz Turks[44]was still formed by Pechenegs in the 1060s.[39]

Alliance with Byzantium

[edit]
Sviatoslav enters Bulgaria with Pecheneg allies,[45]from theConstantine Manasses Chronicle.

In the 9th century, theByzantinesallied with the Pechenegs, using them to fend off other, more dangerous tribes such asKievan Rus'and theMagyars(Hungarians).

The Uzes, anotherTurkicsteppe people, eventually expelled the Pechenegs from their homeland; in the process, they also seized most of their livestock and other goods. An alliance ofOghuz,Kimeks,andKarlukswas also pressing the Pechenegs, but another group, theSamanids,defeated that alliance. Driven further west by theKhazarsandCumansby 889, the Pechenegs in turn drove the Magyars west of theDnieperRiver by 892.

TsarSimeon I of Bulgariaemployed the Pechenegs to help fend off the Magyars. The Pechenegs were so successful that they drove out the Magyars remaining inEtelközand thePontic steppes,forcing them westward towards thePannonian plain,where they later founded theHungarian state.

Late history and decline

[edit]

By the 9th and 10th centuries, Pechenegs controlled much of the steppes of southeastEuropeand theCrimean Peninsula.Although an important factor in the region at the time, like most nomadic tribes their concept of statecraft failed to go beyond random attacks on neighbours and spells as mercenaries for other powers.

In the 9th century the Pechenegs began a period of wars againstKievan Rus'.For more than two centuries they had launched raids into the lands of Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars (like the 920 war on the Pechenegs byIgor of Kiev,reported in thePrimary Chronicle). The Pecheneg wars against Kievan Rus' caused the Slavs from Walachian territories to gradually migrate north of the Dniestr in the 10th and 11th centuries.[46]Rus'/Pecheneg temporary military alliances also occurred however, as during the Byzantine campaign in 943 led by Igor.[note 2]

The heroic deed of the young Kyivite during the siege of Kyiv by the Pechenegs in 968.Andrey Ivanovich Ivanov.[47]

In 968 the Pechenegsattacked and besieged Kiev;some joined the Prince of Kiev,Sviatoslav I,in his Byzantine campaign of 970–971, though eventually they ambushed and killed the Kievan prince in 972. According to thePrimary Chronicle,the PechenegKhanKuryamade achalicefrom Sviatoslav's skull, in accordance with the custom ofsteppenomads. The fortunes of the Rus'-Pecheneg confrontation swung during the reign ofVladimir I of Kiev(990–995), who founded the town ofPereyaslavupon the site of his victory over the Pechenegs,[note 3]followed by the defeat of the Pechenegs during the reign ofYaroslav I the Wisein 1036. Shortly thereafter, other nomadic peoples replaced the weakened Pechenegs in thePontic steppe:theCumansand theTorks.According toMykhailo Hrushevsky(History of Ukraine-Ruthenia), after its defeat near Kiev the Pecheneg Horde moved towards theDanube,crossed the river, and disappeared out of thePontic steppes.

Pecheneg mercenaries served under the Byzantines at theBattle of Manzikert.[48]After centuries of fighting involving all their neighbours—the Byzantine Empire,Bulgaria,Kievan Rus', Khazaria, and the Magyars—the Pechenegs were annihilated as an independent force in 1091 at theBattle of Levounionby a combined Byzantine and Cuman army under Byzantine EmperorAlexios I Komnenos.Alexios I recruited the defeated Pechenegs, whom he settled in the district ofMoglena(today inMacedonia) into atagma"of the Moglena Pechenegs".[49]Attacked again in 1094 by the Cumans, many Pechenegs were slain or absorbed. The Byzantines defeated the Pechenegs again at theBattle of Beroiain 1122, on the territory of modern-day Bulgaria. With time the Pechenegs south of theDanubelost their national identity and became fully assimilated, mostly withRomaniansandBulgarians.Significant communities settled in theHungarian kingdom,around 150 villages.[50]

In the 12th century, according to Byzantine historianJohn Kinnamos,the Pechenegs fought asmercenariesfor theByzantine EmperorManuel I Komnenosinsouthern Italyagainst theNormanking of Sicily,William the Bad.[51]A group of Pechenegs was present at the Battle ofAndriain 1155.[52]

class=notpageimage|
The Pechenegs and contemporary Asian polities circa 1000 CE.

The Pechenegs as a group were last mentioned in 1168 as members of Turkic tribes known in the chronicles as the "Chorni Klobuky(Black Hats) ".[53]It is likely that the Pecheneg population of Hungary was decimated by theMongol invasion of Hungary,but names of Pecheneg origin continue to be reported in official documents. The title of "Comes Bissenorum" (Count of the Pechenegs) lasted for at least another 200 years.

In 15th-century Hungary, some people adopted the surnameBesenyö(Hungarianfor "Pecheneg" );[citation needed]they were most numerous in thecounty of Tolna.One of the earliest introductions ofIslamintoEastern Europecame about through the work of an early 11th-century Muslim prisoner who was captured by the Byzantines. The Muslim prisoner was brought into the Besenyő territory of the Pechenegs, where he taught and converted individuals to Islam.[54]In the late 12th century,Abu Hamid al-Gharnatireferred to Hungarian Pechenegs – probably Muslims – living disguised as Christians. In the southeast of Serbia, there is a village calledPečenjevcefounded by Pechenegs. After war with Byzantium, the remnants of the tribes found refuge in the area, where they established their settlement.[55][56][57][58][59][60]

Settlements bearing the name Pecheneg

[edit]

Leaders

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See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Azerbaijani:Peçeneq(lər),Turkish:Peçenek(ler),Middle Turkic:بَجَنَكْBäčänäk,Romanian:Pecenegi,‹See Tfd›Russian:Печенег(и),Ukrainian:Печеніг(и),Hungarian:Besenyő(k),Greek:Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται,Georgian:პაჭანიკი,Bulgarian:печенеги,romanized:pechenegi,Bulgarian:печенези,pechenezi;Serbo-Croatian:Pečenezi/Печенези,Latin:Pacinacae, Bisseni
  2. ^Ibn Haukaldescribes the Pechenegs as the long-standing allies of the Rus', whom they invariably accompanied during the 10th centuryCaspian expeditions.
  3. ^The chronicler explains the town's name, derived from the Slavic word for "retake", by the fact that Vladimir "retook" the military glory from the Pechenegs.
  4. ^While his rule's exact end cannot be dated, Kurya was no longer khan by 988.

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefSpinei 2003,p. 93.
  2. ^abcdGolden 2003,p. I.64.
  3. ^Peter Benjamin Golden.An Introduction to the History of the Turkic peoples.p. 264.
  4. ^Maḥmūd, Kāshgarī; James Kelly (1982).Türk Şiveleri Lügatı = Dīvānü Luġāt-It-Türk.Duxbury, Mass: Tekin.
  5. ^abCurta 2006,p. 182.
  6. ^Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio(ch. 37), p. 171.
  7. ^Macartney 1968,pp. 104–105.
  8. ^Golden, Peter B.,"Ethnogenesis in the Tribal Zone: The Shaping of the Türks".From:Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes,ed. C. Hriban, Florilegium magistrorum historiae archaeologicaeque Antiquitatis et Medii Aevi, IX (Bucharest-Brăla, 2011):17-63 / ISBN 978-973-27-2152-0
  9. ^abcPritsak 1975,p. 213.
  10. ^Spinei 2003,p. 94.
  11. ^Victor Spinei, "Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century",ISBN9789047428800/ Brill 2009, p.181
  12. ^Németh, "Die Inschriften," 16, pp. 50-1; Ligeti, "A magyar nyelv," p.362, 506; andGyörffy,"A Besenyők nyelve," p.170-91. Cited in theEncyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition),Vol.VIII, Leiden 1994, p.289
  13. ^Баскаков, Н. А.Тюркские языки,Москва 1960, с. 126-131.
  14. ^Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph, Freiherr von,Geschichte der Goldenen horde in Kiptschak, das ist: der Mongolen in Russland,1840. digital page n70 or 6/mode/2up.
  15. ^Tang Huiyao,"Vol. 72"quote: "Khang quốcMã.Khang cư quốcDã. Thị đại uyển mã chủng. Hình dung cực đại. Võ đức trung. Khang quốc hiến tứ thiên thất. Kim thời quan mã. Do thị kỳ chủng.……Khang hạt lợiMã. Ấn trạch. "rough translation:" Horses of theKang nation,which is theKangju nation.They are a stock ofDayuan horses.In the middle of theWude era[622 - 626 CE], theKang nationtributed 4,000 horses. Nowadays, the officials' horses are [probably] of that stock. [...]Kangheli's horses;tamga[resembles] [character] trạch "
  16. ^K. H. Menges, Altaic elements, s. 101-104. (cited PDF)
  17. ^S.G. Klyaštornij,Drevnetyurkskie Runiçeskie Pamyatniki Kak Istoçnik Po Istorii Sredney Azii,Moscow 1964, p.163-167 (cited PDF)
  18. ^abSpinei 2003,p. 95.
  19. ^Spinei 2009,p. 181.
  20. ^Spinei 2009,p. 343.
  21. ^Róna-Tas 1999,p. 239.
  22. ^Баскаков, Н. А. Тюркские языки, Москва 1960, с. 126-131.
  23. ^Golden 1992,p. 265-6.
  24. ^A magyarok eredete, Vámbéry
  25. ^G. GYÖRFFY. "MONUMENTS DU LEXIQUE PETCHÉNÈGUE".Acta Orientalia:78.
  26. ^Pritsak 1975,pp. 211–212.
  27. ^Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio(ch. 37), p. 167.
  28. ^abPritsak 1975,p. 211.
  29. ^abcdefSpinei 2003,p. 113.
  30. ^Golden 2011,p. 232.
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  37. ^abPritsak 1975,p. 213-214.
  38. ^Spinei 2003,p. 114.
  39. ^abcdefgPritsak 1975,p. 214.
  40. ^Spinei 2003,pp. 113–114.
  41. ^abKristó 2003,p. 138.
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References

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Primary sources

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  • Anna Comnena: The Alexiad(Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-044958-7.
  • Constantine Porphyrogenitus:De Administrando Imperio(Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation b Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies.ISBN0-88402-021-5.

Secondary sources

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  • Atalay, Besim (2006).Divanü Lügati't – Türk.Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi.ISBN975-16-0405-2.
  • Curta, Florin (2006).Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-89452-4.
  • Golden, Peter B. (2011).Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes.Editura Academiei Române.ISBN978-973-27-2152-0.
  • Golden, Peter B. (2003).Nomads and their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe: Turks, Khazars and Quipchaqs.Ashgate.ISBN0-86078-885-7.
  • Golden, Peter B. (1992).An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People.Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
  • Kristó, Gyula (2003).Háborúk és hadviselés az Árpádok korában[Wars and Tactics under the Árpáds] (in Hungarian). Szukits Könyvkiadó.ISBN963-9441-87-2.
  • Macartney, C. A. (1968).The Magyars in the Ninth Century.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-08070-5.
  • Pritsak, Omeljan (1975). "The Pechenegs: A Case of Social and Economic Transformation".Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi.1.The Peter de Ridder Press: 211–235.
  • Róna-Tas, András (1999).Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History (Translated by Nicholas Bodoczky).CEU Press.ISBN978-963-9116-48-1.
  • Spinei, Victor (2003).The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century (Translated by Dana Badulescu).Romanian Cultural Institute.ISBN973-85894-5-2.
  • Spinei, Victor (2009).The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century.Koninklijke Brill NV.ISBN978-90-04-17536-5.

Further reading

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Media related toPechenegsat Wikimedia Commons

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