Penal military unit
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Apenal military unit,also known as apenal formation,disciplinary unit,or justpenal unit(usually named for their formation and size, such aspenal battalionforbattalions,penal regimentforregiments,penal companyforcompanies,etc.), is amilitary formationconsisting ofconvictsmobilized formilitary service.Such formations may consist of military prisoners convicted undermilitary law,civilian prisoners convicted in civiliancourts,prisoners of warwho have chosen to side with their captors, or a combination of these groups.
Service in penal military units is generally considered a form of punishment, discipline, orpenal labour,used in lieu of, or offered as an alternative to,imprisonmentorcapital punishment.Penal units have historically been used as disposablecannon fodder,treated poorly or with little regard and used in compromising or dangerous situations (commonlysuicide missionssuch asdeminingorforlorn hopeadvance parties), asmarch battalionsthat maintain replacement personnel asreserves,or kept in therearformilitary operations other than waror menial labour relating to thewar effort,guarded and overseen by regular military units,military police,orbarrier troopsto ensure they do not attempt toescape,retreat,ormutiny.However, this is not always the case: some penal units are treated the same as regular units and, depending on military organization, a dedicated penal unit may not exist at all, with convicts instead being placed in a regular unit. Rewards and incentives for convicts to serve in a penal unit vary—oftenexpungement,commutation,stay of execution,or apardon—though penal units used as punishment typically lack those by nature.
The first known penal military units were established inimperial China.Since then, several nations and armed forces across history and the world have fielded penal units of varying sizes with varying roles. Penal units are extremely rare in the modern day, with most militaries relying instead onvolunteersandconscriptsformilitary personnel,and convicts and criminals—typically only accepted into military service out of necessity—usually being placed into regular units. The hiring of prisoners for combat and military service, often in exchange for freedom, is a commontropein modernfictionandpopular culture,with narratives centering around penal units appearing in films, television, novels, and video games.
History
[edit]One of the earliest examples of penal military units was recorded in the Chinese annalsRecords of the Grand HistorianandBook of Han.During theHan–Dayuan War,unhappy with the failure of GeneralLi Guangliin an earlier expedition in 104 BC,Emperor Wu of Hanpromised amnesty and rewards to criminals, prisoners and bandits ( xá tù đồ hãn khấu đạo ) and dispatched a 60,000-strong army consisting of "bad boys" ( ác thiếu niên ) to attack theGreco-Bactrian kingdomofDayuanin 102 BC.[1]
Dedicated penal units were first envisioned during theNapoleonicera of warfare, as large armies formed of conscripts often suffered from disciplinary problems.[2]Soldiers who refused to face the enemy were seen as detrimental to the cohesion of the army and as a disgrace to the nation. The formation of penal battalions was seen as a way of disciplining an army and keeping soldiers in line. In addition, many nations conscripted criminals into penal battalions in lieu of imprisoning or executing them during wartime to better utilize national manpower. Such military units were treated with little regard by the regular army and were often placed in compromising situations, such as being used inforlorn hopeassaults.[2]The French Empirein particular was notable for employing penal military units during thewars of the coalition,especially during the later years of the conflicts as manpower became limited. TheRégiment pénal de l'Île de Ré,formed in 1811 and composed almost entirely of criminals and other societal undesirables, would see action during the later years of theNapoleonic Wars.[3]
The disbandment of conscripted armies and end of large scale warfare following the Napoleonic era led to the decline of the penal battalion system in continental Europe. However, the system continued in overseas colonies, again with the French as the primary employers of penal battalions. TheBattalions of Light Infantry of Africa(Bats d'Af) was formed by order ofLouis Philippe Iin 1832 for the purpose of expanding theFrench colonial empire.[4]The Battalions fought in theFrench conquest of Algeriaand during theCrimean War.[5]The French also employed thecompagnies d'exclus( "companies of the excluded" ), military units which were stationed at Aîn-Sefra in Southern Algeria. In contrast to theBats d'Af,thecompagnies d'excluswere outright penal units consisting of convicts condemned to five years or more of hard labor and judged unworthy to carry weapons.[6]
The variousItalian unificationconflicts saw theRedshirtsrecruiting convicts and revolutionaries from prisons into penal regiments known asBattaglioni degli imprigionati( "Battalions of the Imprisoned" or "Prisoners Battalion".)
Prior to the early 1900s, thePortuguese Empirerelied largely on military convicts to augment the regular and indigenous troops employed to provide garrisons for its overseas colonies.
DuringWorld War I,theBritish Armed Forceswere mobilized for military service. Courts offered defendants the option of enlisting to avoid imprisonment, while young offenders inborstalsand adult prisoners were granted early release for their service. Though government officials publicly claimed criminals were unfit for service, and prisoners were viewed as lacking "the sense of duty that encouraged other men to enlist", the recruitment of prisoners was a military necessity, and prisoners were reportedly sought out for their violent nature and to ease the cost of the prison system in wartime.[7]
The period of military rearmament precedingWorld War IIcaused renewed interest in the concept of penal military units. In May 1935 the GermanWehrmachtinstituted a new policy under German conscription law that stated soldiers who were deemed disruptive to military discipline but were otherwise "worthy of service" would be sent to military penal units. Criminals were also conscripted into penal units in exchange for lighter sentences or as a form ofstay of execution.[8]These units, referred to as "special departments" or the generic termStrafbataillon,were overseen by theGerman military police.Prior to World War II, there were nineStrafbataillonewithin theWehrmacht.The primary role of aStrafbataillonwas to provide front line support. As the war progressed, the size ofStrafbatailloncompanies dramatically increased in size due to changes in German military policy. Under such policies, any soldier who had a death sentence (for retreat) commuted was automatically reassigned to penal units, greatly increasing the number of soldiers available to theStrafbataillon.
The effectiveness ofStrafbataillonewere mixed. The combination of criminals, political prisoners, and undisciplined soldiers that made up aStrafbataillonoften required harsh measures to be imposed for unit cohesion to be maintained.Strafbataillonewere often ordered to undertake high risk missions on the front line, with soldiers being coached to regain their lost honor by fighting.[9]Certain penal military units, such as the36th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS,gained a reputation as being brutal towards civilian populations and prisoners of war, and were employed asanti-partisantroops due to the fear they inspired.[10][11][12]Other units, most notably the999th Light Afrika Division,suffered from poor morale and saw soldiers desert theWehrmachtto join resistance groups.[13]
FollowingOperation Barbarossaand the entry of theSoviet Unioninto World War II, theRed Armybegan to seriously consider the implementation of penal military units. These efforts resulted in the creation ofShtrafbat,penal military units composed of sentenced soldiers, political prisoners, and others deemed to be expendable. A large number of Red Army soldiers who retreated without orders during the initial German invasion were reorganized into rudimentary penal units, the precursors to dedicatedShtrafbat.TheShtrafbatwere greatly increased in number byJoseph Stalinin July 1942 viaOrder No. 227(Директива Ставки ВГК №227). Order No. 227 was a desperate effort to re-instill discipline after the panicked routs of the first year of combat with Germany. The order—popularized as the "Not one step back!" (Ни шагу назад!,Ni shagu nazad!) Order—introduced severe punishments, includingsummary execution,for unauthorized retreats.[14][15]
During theChinese Civil War,between 1945 and 1949, theNational Revolutionary Army(NRA) was known to have fielded penal battalions. Made up of deserters and those accused of cowardice, these penal battalions were given dangerous tasks such as scouting ahead of the main forces to check for ambushes, crossing rivers and torrents to see whether they were fordable, and traversing unmapped minefields.[16]
In theUnited States,theUnited States Armed Forceshistorically fielded penal units and permitted the enlistment of prisoners. During theAmerican Civil War,theUnionpermittedGalvanized Yankees,Confederateprisoners of war who swore allegiance to the Union, into their ranks in penal units from 1862 to around 1866. During World War II, prisoners were permitted to provide to the war effort, and in 1942, it was reported that several prisoners had offered to enlist in the military to fight in the war, with some even receiving training ahead of enlistment, though no penal units are known to have been formed in the U.S. military.[17]
Well into the 20th century, U.S. courts offered defendants the choice between enlistment and prison, a practice that continued through both world wars and theKorean Waruntil at least theVietnam War;reportedly, this was howR. Lee Ermey,aU.S. Marine Corpsstaff sergeantanddrill instructorknown for his acting role in the 1987 filmFull Metal Jacket,enlisted as a 17-year-old delinquent in 1961.[18]However, convicts were not placed in separate penal units, and the practice was entirely up to the judge with the military having the option to reject the defendant.[19][20]Presently, all branches of the U.S. military forbid the acceptance of convicts, both after sentencing and as an alternative to imprisonment (except theU.S. Navy,which does not have specific prohibitions but still strongly discourages it as a protocol),[20]and do not maintain any penal formations, though ex-convicts withfelonypriors are still permitted with a properfelony waiver.[21][22]In 2021, theFlorida Legislatureproposed a bill that would formally permit first-time offenders 25-years-old or younger to enlist instead of facing imprisonment, though it did not pass.[19][23]
In the modern day, the practice of fielding penal military units has largely stopped, with most militaries discouraging or outright prohibiting the acceptance of convicts, though some militaries accept ex-convicts provided they fulfill certain requirements, such as having a properwaiver.For example, a U.S. military recruiter toldThe Daily Beastin 2018 that recruitment candidates can have "one non-violent felony as an adult", and that "some of the best and most capable candidates we get require a waiver".[21]However, though rare, the practice of accepting convicts into armed forces has continued or been made permissible in some jurisdictions and situations. During theRussian invasion of Ukraine,for instance, theArmed Forces of Ukrainepermitted the recruitment of Ukrainian prisoners with prior combat experience,[24]and Russianprivate military companyWagner Groupbegan hiring Russian inmates to fill their ranks.[25][26][27]
By country
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Belgium
[edit]- Special Forestry Platoon– ABelgian Armynon-combatpenal platoon composed ofFlemishsoldiers who had some relationship with theFlemish MovementduringWorld War I.Formed in 1918, the unit conductedwoodchoppinginOrne,Normandy,France as a form of penal labour until several months after the end of the war.[28][29][30][31]
Bolivia
[edit]- 50th Infantry Regiment– ABolivian Armypenal regiment composed of convicted soldiers and police officers that served in theChaco War.[32][33][34][35][36]
Finland
[edit]- Erillinen Pataljoona 21( "Separate Battalion 21" ) – AFinnish Armypenal battalion founded in August 1941, from volunteering prisoners and leftists inprotective custody,that fought in theContinuation War.Commanded by Major Nikke Pärmi, the distinguishing mark of Er.P 21 was the black V sewn into the sleeve of their uniform; these gave them the nicknames of "Pärmi's Devils" and "Black Arrow".[37]
France
[edit]- Régiment pénal de l'Île de Ré( "French Penal Regiment of Île de Ré" ) – One of five regional penal units forming part of theFrench Armyin the early 1810s. Formed in 1811, the unit was stationed onÎle de Ré,and was disbanded in 1814 during theFirst Restoration.
- Battalions of Light Infantry of Africa(Bataillons d'Infanterie Légère d'Afrique) – Penal battalions serving inFrench North Africa,composed of men with prison records who still had to complete their military service, and serving soldiers with serious disciplinary problems. Formed in 1832, this corps was disbanded in 1972.
- Bataillon d'Infanterie légère d'Outre-Mer( "Overseas Light Infantry Battalion" ) – A penal battalion consisting of German prisoners of war and Frenchcollaborationistsafter World War II. Formed in 1948 for service in theFrench colonies,the unit attracted few members and was subject to a campaign by theFrench Communist Partybefore it was disbanded in 1949.
- Disciplinary Company of the Foreign Regiments in the Far East(Compagnie disciplinaire en Extrême-Orient) – A penal company of theFrench Foreign Legionin theFar East,consisting of Legionnaires who had committed serious offenses. Formed in 1946 and attached to the2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment,the company depended on the battalions implanted inFrench Indochina.After French Indochina's dissolution following the1954 Geneva Conference,the company was disbanded in August 1954.
Germany
[edit]- Strafbataillon( "Penal Battalion" ) – A generic term for penal units in theWehrmacht,fielded between 1942 and 1945. These units were poorly armed and often undertook what were essentiallysuicide missions.
- 999th Light Afrika Division– AWehrmachtpenal division stationed inTunisia,originating from the 999th Africa Brigade in 1942. The unit consisted of individuals who held, or were perceived to hold,anti-fascistbeliefs. The unit suffered heavy casualties in theNorth African campaign,and members were reportedly so unwilling to fight for Germany that they quickly surrendered their positions toAlliedtroops when confronted. After the unit transferred toAxis-occupied Greece,several members defected or began conducting anti-Nazi activities. The unit was disbanded in 1943.
- Dirlewanger Brigade– AWaffen-SSpenal brigade consisting of convicted criminals who were not expected to survive their service. Formed in 1940 forcounterinsurgencyoperations, it became notorious even among theWaffen-SSfor the sheer depravity of its war crimes, being responsible for severalmass murdersinEastern Europe.
Italy
[edit]- Cacciatori Franchi( "Frankish Hunters" ) – The penal unit of theRoyal Sardinian Army.Established around 1741, the unit existed until 1878, when disciplinary companies were established.[38]
- Battaglione di Rigore( "Penalty Battalion" ) – The penal unit of theItalian Social Republicmilitary.
- Battaglioni degli Imprigionati( "Battalions of the Imprisoned" ) – Penal battalions of theRedshirtsin theWars of Italian Unification,composed of prisoners and revolutionaries.
Russia
[edit]- Storm-Z– a group of penal military units established in April 2023, during theRussian invasion of Ukraine[39]
- Storm-V– a group of penal military units established in June 2023, during theRussian invasion of Ukraine[40]
South Korea
[edit]- Unit 684– Ablack operationsunit of theRepublic of Korea Air Force,consisting largely of petty criminals. Formed in 1968 in response to theBlue House raid,whereinUnit 124of theKorean People's Army Special Operation Forceattempted to assassinate South Korean PresidentPark Chung Hee,Unit 684 received extremely harsh training on the island ofSilmidoin anticipation for a retaliatory operation to assassinate North Korean General SecretaryKim Il Sung.However, warming relations by 1971 led to the mission's cancellation and the unit's dissolution; the members of Unit 684 promptly launched a violent escape attempt, culminating in astandoffthat led to the deaths of most of the unit and the capture and execution of the remaining survivors.
Soviet Union
[edit]- Shtrafbat– Penal battalions of theRed ArmyandNKVD,composed of sentenced soldiers, political prisoners, and others deemed to be expendable, fighting on theEastern Frontof World War II. Established in 1942 byJoseph StalininOrder No. 227,over 422,000 prisoners were placed intoshtrafbatsuntil their disestablishment followingvictory in Europein May 1945, by which point very few had survived.
Ukraine
[edit]- Kharakternyky Battalion– Nicknamed "The Magicians" the battalion was formed after theVerkhovna Radapassed Registered draft law No. 11079 which allowed for the mobilization of convicts into theUkrainian Army.
United States
[edit]- Galvanized Yankees– A term used to refer toConfederate States ArmyandConfederate States Navyformer personnel andprisoners of warwho, after their capture, swore allegiance to theUnionand enlisted in theUnion ArmyandUnion Navyduring theAmerican Civil War.The practice of enlisting Confederate prisoners to Union forces began around 1862 and lasted until 1866. A similar practice was conducted by theConfederate States of America,but not to the same extent.
In popular culture
[edit]- The Dirty Dozen– A 1967 film about the titular fictional American penal unit, composed of military prisoners trained as commandos for a suicide mission ahead of theNormandy landingsduring World War II. The film was a commercial and critical success, and was followed by severaltelevision filmsequels in the 1980s:The Dirty Dozen: Next Mission,The Dirty Dozen: The Deadly Mission,andThe Dirty Dozen: The Fatal Mission.
- Silmido– A 2003 film dramatizing the story of Unit 684. The film is credited with having increased public awareness of Unit 684's story, though some aspects of the film are fictionalized due to numerous details of the actual story remaining classified.
- Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown– A 2019combat flight simulationvideo game, part of which follows "Spare Squadron", a penalsquadronof the fictional Osean Federation'sair forcethat is considered disposable and used to test enemycombat dronedefenses, overseen by aprison wardenserving as their commander andairborne early warning and controloperator.
- Suicide Squad– A fantastical version of the concept within theDC Comicsuniverse.
References
[edit]- Conquest, Robert,Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps,Methuen Press, (1978)ISBN978-0-670-41499-4
- Hatch, Gardner N.,American Ex-prisoners of War: Non Solum Armis,Turner Publishing Company, (1988),ISBN978-1-56311-624-7
- Krivosheev, G.F.Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century,London, Greenhill Books, 1997,ISBN978-1-85367-280-4,available online (in Russian)[1].
- Lebed, Alexander (Gen.),My Life and My Country,Regnery Publishing, (1997)ISBN978-0-89526-422-0
- Lynch, Michael,The Chinese Civil War 1945–49: Modern Warfare (Guide To... Book 61)Osprey Publishing (2010),ISBN978 1 4728 1025 0
- Manazeev, Igor, "A 'Penal' Corps on the Kalinin Front",Journal of Slavic Military Studies,Vol. 15, Issue 3, September 2002OCLC201968754
- Mawdsley, Evan,The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 1929-1953,Manchester University Press (2003),ISBN978-0-7190-6377-0
- Suvorov, Viktor,Inside The Soviet Army,Hamish Hamilton (1982),ISBN0-241-10889-6
- Tolstoy, Nikolai,Stalin's Secret War,New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston (1981),ISBN0-03-047266-0
- Toppe, Alfred,Night Combat,Diane Publishing (1998),ISBN978-0-7881-7080-5
External links
[edit]- Yefim Golbraikh memoirs, including his serving commander of a penal company(in Russian)
- Soviet penal units in World War 2,fromVoice of Russia
- Report: Saudis sent death-row inmates to fight Syria,21 January 2013
- ^《 hán thư quyển lục thập nhất trương khiên lý quảng lợi truyện đệ tam thập nhất 》: Xá tù đồ hãn khấu đạo, phát ác thiếu niên cập biên kỵ, tuế dư nhi xuất đôn hoàng lục vạn nhân, phụ tư tòng giả bất dữ. Ngưu thập vạn, mã tam vạn thất, lư thác đà dĩ vạn sổ tê lương, binh nỗ thậm thiết. Thiên hạ tao động, chuyển tương phụng phạt uyển, ngũ thập dư giáo úy.
- ^abBertaud, Jean-Paul (1988).The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-soldier to Instrument of Power.Princeton University Press.
- ^"Re: French Penal Regiment Organization".www.napoleon-series.org.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-04-11.Retrieved2017-02-11.
- ^Sicard, Jacques (1994).Les Bataillons d'Infanterie Legere d'Afrique et leurs insignes, 1832-1972.p. 49.
- ^"The Soldier's Burden".www.kaiserscross.com.Retrieved2017-02-11.
- ^Musée de l'infanterie - "Les Bataillons d'Afrique"
- ^McKay, Cameron (2021-05-27)."'Likely to make good soldiers': mobilizing Britain's criminal population during the First World War ".academic.oup.com.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^Grunberger, Richard (1971).The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany, 1933–1945.Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- ^Chris, Bishop; Williams, Michael (2003).SS: Hell on the Western Front.Zenith Imprint. p. 92.ISBN0-7603-1402-0.
- ^Borowiec, Andrew.Destroy Warsaw!: Hitler's Punishment, Stalin's Reveng.p. 101.
- ^Ingrao, Christian (2011).The SS Dirlewanger Brigade - The History of the Black Hunters.Skyhorse Publishing. pp. 98–99.
- ^Cooper, Matthew.The Nazi War Against Soviet Partisans, 1941–1944.p. 88.
- ^Nafziger, George F.The Afrika Korps: An organizational history 1941–1943.
- ^Tolstoy 1981
- ^Suvorov 1982
- ^Lynch, Michael (2010).Osprey Guide to...The Chinese Civil War 1945-1949.Osprey Publishing. pp. Kindle Locations 878–880.ISBN978-1-4728-1025-0.
- ^"Patriotism behind bars: U.S. prisons aid the war effort".World War 2.0.1942-05-09.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^Cooper, Steve (September 2010)."Gunny R. Lee Ermey Unplugged".The First Shot.Civilian Marksmanship Program.RetrievedApril 16,2018.
- ^abStofan, Jake (2021-12-28)."New legislation would allow military service in lieu of prison time".WJHG-TV.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^ab"Can Military Service Actually Be an Alternative to Jail Time?".LiveAbout.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^abRohrlich, Justin (2018-04-23)."How the Army Recruits Straight Out of Prisons".The Daily Beast.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^"When inmates become US Army soldiers".Corrections1.22 March 2010.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^"Senate Bill 1356 (2023) - The Florida Senate".www.flsenate.gov.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^"Ukrainian prisoners with combat history to be released to help defend against Russia".The Independent.28 February 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-09-04.Retrieved28 February2022.
- ^"Wagner Group Is Sending Russian Inmates to Fight in Ukraine, Report Says".news.yahoo.com.5 July 2022.Retrieved2022-07-05.
- ^"Russia's Wagner mercenaries halt prisoner recruitment campaign - Prigozhin".Reuters.9 February 2023.Retrieved2023-02-22.
- ^Sauer, Pjotr (2022-09-20)."'We thieves and killers are now fighting Russia's war': how Moscow recruits from its prisons ".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved2023-05-23.
- ^Geert Herman, Nieuwsblad, 7 juli 2014, article in Dutch
- ^Peter Verplancke, VRT, 15 juli 2018, article in Dutch
- ^Tom Simoens, CHTP-BEG - n° 23 / 2011, article in DutchVan arrangeren tot renseigneren. Smaad en geweld Van militairen Tegen hun oversten tijdens de eerste wereldoorlogArchived2019-12-03 at theWayback Machine
- ^Didden, Kris (1 January 1997)."De Houthakkers van de Orne".WT. Tijdschrift over de Geschiedenis van de Vlaamse Beweging.56(4): 195–219.doi:10.21825/wt.v56i4.13075.
- ^"La obra de los carabineros en la Guerra del Chaco sube a las tablas".3 August 2021.
- ^"Los macheteros de la muerte".
- ^http://www.revistasbolivianas.ciencia.bo/pdf/fdc/v11n48/v11n48_a15.pdf[bare URL PDF]
- ^"Tesoros policiales".
- ^"CEFOTES rememora en el teatro una historia de la Guerra del Chaco".11 August 2021.
- ^Vaara, Topi: Pärmin pirut: Er.P 21:n vaiheita jatkosodassa 1941–1942. Helsinki: Otava, 1977. ISBN 951-10452-7-X.
- ^"Cacciatori Franchi".www.carabinieri.it(in Italian).Retrieved2023-05-21.
- ^Lewis, Kaitlin (April 7, 2023)."Ukrainian reserve officer says Russia is forming special" Storm Z "units".Newsweek.
- ^https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-recruited-convicts-fierce-assault-units-storm-gladiator-/32806371.html