Jump to content

Black pepper

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromPeppercorn)
"Peppercorn" redirects here. For other uses, seePeppercorn (disambiguation).

Black pepper
Pepper plant with immature peppercorns
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species:
P. nigrum
Binomial name
Piper nigrum

Black pepper(Piper nigrum) is afloweringvinein the familyPiperaceae,cultivated for itsfruit(thepeppercorn), which is usually dried and used as aspiceandseasoning.The fruit is adrupe(stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains astonewhich encloses a single pepperseed.Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply aspepper,or more precisely asblack pepper(cooked and dried unripe fruit),green pepper(dried unripe fruit), orwhite pepper(ripe fruit seeds).[2]

Black pepper is native to theMalabar CoastofIndia,[3][4]and theMalabar pepperis extensively cultivated there and in othertropicalregions. Ground, dried, and cooked peppercorns have been used since antiquity, both for flavour and as atraditional medicine.Black pepper is the world's most tradedspice,[5]and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to the chemical compoundpiperine,which is a different kind of spiciness from that ofcapsaicincharacteristic ofchili peppers.It is ubiquitous in the Western world as aseasoning,and is often paired withsaltand available on dining tables inshakersormills.

Etymology

[edit]

The wordpepperderives fromOld Englishpipor,Latinpiper,andGreek:πέπερι.[6]The Greek likely derives fromDravidianpippali,meaning "long pepper".[7]Sanskritpippalishares the same meaning.[6]

In the 16th century, people began usingpepperto also mean theNew Worldchili pepper(genusCapsicum), which is not closely related.[6]: 2b 

Varieties

[edit]
Black, green, white, and pink (Schinus terebinthifolia) peppercorns

Processed peppercorns come in a variety of colours, any one of which may be used in food preparation, especially commonpeppercorn sauce.[8]

Black pepper

[edit]

Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripedrupeof the pepper plant.[2]The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying.[9]The heat rupturescell wallsin the pepper, speeding the work ofbrowningenzymesduring drying.[9]The drupes dry in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer. Once dry, the spice is called black peppercorn. On some estates, the berries are separated from the stem by hand and then sun-dried without boiling.[2]After the peppercorns are dried, pepper spirit and oil can be extracted from the berries by crushing them.

White pepper

[edit]

White pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with the thin darker-coloured skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by a process known asretting,where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week so the flesh of the peppercorn softens anddecomposes;rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes the outer layer is removed from the seed through other mechanical, chemical, or biological methods.[10]

Ground white pepper is commonly used inChinese,Thai,andPortuguese cuisines.It finds occasional use in other cuisines in salads,light-colouredsauces, andmashed potatoesas a substitute for black pepper, because black pepper would visibly stand out. However, white pepper lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe, resulting in a different overall flavour.[citation needed]

Green pepper

[edit]

Green pepper, like black pepper, is made from unripe drupes. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a way that retains the green colour, such as withsulfur dioxide,canning,orfreeze-drying.Pickledpeppercorns, also green, are unripe drupes preserved inbrineorvinegar.

Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes are used in some cuisines likeThai cuisineandTamil cuisine.Their flavour has been described as "spicy and fresh", with a "bright aroma."[11]They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping.

Red peppercorns

[edit]

Red peppercorns usually consist of ripe peppercorn drupes preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.[12]

Pink pepper and other plants

[edit]

Pink peppercornsare the fruits of thePeruvian pepper tree,Schinus molle,or its relative, theBrazilian pepper tree,Schinus terebinthifolius,plants from a different family (Anacardiaceae). As they are members of thecashewfamily, they may causeallergic reactions,includinganaphylaxis,for persons with atree nut allergy.

The bark ofDrimys winteri( "canelo" or "winter's bark" ) is used as a substitute for pepper in cold and temperate regions ofChileandArgentina,where it is easily found and readily available. InNew Zealand,the seeds ofkawakawa(Piper excelsum), arelative of black pepper,are sometimes used as pepper; the leaves ofPseudowintera colorata( "mountain horopito" ) are another replacement for pepper. Several plants in the United States are also used as pepper substitutes, such asfield pepperwort,least pepperwort,shepherd's purse,horseradish,andfield pennycress.

  • Six variants of peppercorns (two types of white and two types of black, based on region)
    Six variants of peppercorns (two types of white and two types of black, based on region)
  • Black peppercorns and white peppercorns
    Black and white peppercorns
  • Dried red Kampot peppercorns
    Dried redKampot peppercorns
  • Close-up of a peppercorn
    Close-up of a peppercorn

Plants

[edit]
Black pepper vine climbing on Jackfruit tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus)

The pepper plant is aperennialwoodyvinegrowing up to 4 m (13 ft) in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) long and 3 to 6 cm (1.2 to 2.4 in) across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes 4 to 8 cm (1.6 to 3.1 in) long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to 7 to 15 cm (2.8 to 5.9 in) as the fruit matures.[13]

Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained, and rich in organic matter (the vines do not do well over an altitude of 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level). The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leafmulchandmanure,and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils, the young plants require watering every other day during thedry seasonfor the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and then typically for seven years. The cuttings are usuallycultivars,selected both for yield and quality of fruit.[citation needed]

Single stem with flowers.

A single stem bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruits lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.[13]

Black pepper is native either toSoutheast Asia[14]orSouth Asia.[15]Within the genusPiper,it is most closely related to other Asian species such asP. caninum.[15]

Wild pepper grows in theWestern Ghatsregion ofIndia.Into the 19th century, the forests contained expansive wild pepper vines, as recorded by the Scottish physicianFrancis Buchanan(also a botanist and geographer) in his bookA journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar(Volume III).[16]However,deforestationresulted in wild pepper growing in more limited forest patches fromGoatoKerala,with the wild source gradually decreasing as the quality and yield of the cultivated variety improved. No successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to date.[16]

Production and trade

[edit]
Black pepper production, 2020
Country Production
(tonnes)
Vietnam
270,192
Brazil
114,749
Indonesia
89,041
India
66,000
Sri Lanka
43,557
China
33,348
Malaysia
30,804
World
747,644
Source:FAOSTATof theUnited Nations[17]

In 2020,Vietnamwas the world's largest producer and exporter of black peppercorns, producing 270,192tonnesor 36% of the world total (table).[17]Other major producers wereBrazil,Indonesia,India,Sri Lanka,China,andMalaysia.Global pepper production varies annually according to crop management, disease, and weather.[18]Peppercorns are among the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports.[19]

History

[edit]

Black pepper is native toSouth Asiaand Southeast Asia, and has been known toIndian cookingsince at least 2000 BCE.[20][how?]J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southernThailandand inMalaysia,[when?]its most important source was India, particularly theMalabar Coast,in what is now the state ofKerala.[21]The lost ancient port city ofMuzirisin Kerala, famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, gets mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade withRoman Empire,Egypt,Mesopotamia,Levant,andYemen.[22][23][24][25]Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form ofcommodity money.The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize the term "peppercorn rent"as a token payment for something that is, essentially, a gift.[citation needed]

The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that oflong pepper,the dried fruit of closely relatedPiper longum.The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as justpiper.In fact, the popularity of long pepper did not entirely decline until the discovery of the New World and ofchili peppers.Chili peppers—some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper—were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown inJava,Sunda,Sumatra,Madagascar,Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia. These areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally.[26]Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean.

Ancient times

[edit]

Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils ofRamesses II,placed there as part of themummificationrituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE.[27]Little else is known about the use of pepper inancient Egyptand how it reached theNilefrom theMalabar Coastof South Asia.

Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the fourth century BCE, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford.

A Roman-era trade route from India to Italy

By the time of the earlyRoman Empire,especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea direct to Chera dynastysouthern India's Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea.According to the Greek geographerStrabo,the early empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual trip to India and back.[28]The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictablemonsoonwinds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up theRed Sea,from where the cargo was carried overland or via theNile-Red Sea canalto the Nile River, barged toAlexandria,and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.

With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast,Malabar black pepperwas now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it.Pliny the Elder'sNatural Historytells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper... is 15denariiper pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four. "Pliny also complains," There is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of 50 millionsesterces",and further moralizes on pepper:

It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite?

— Pliny,Natural History12.14[29]

He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of the items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces.[28]

Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire.Apicius'De re coquinaria,a third-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the first century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes.Edward Gibbonwrote, inThe History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,that pepper was "a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".[30]

Postclassical Europe

[edit]

Pepper was so valuable that it was often used ascollateralor even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall.Alaric,king of theVisigoths,included 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom he demanded from Rome when he besieged the city in the fifth century.[31]After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of thespice trade,first thePersiansand then theArabs;Innes Miller cites the account ofCosmas Indicopleustes,who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century".[32]By the end of theEarly Middle Ages,the central portions of the spice trade were firmly underIslamiccontrol. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolized by Italian powers, especiallyVeniceandGenoa.The rise of thesecity-stateswas funded in large part by the spice trade.

Ariddleauthored bySaint Aldhelm,a seventh-centuryBishop of Sherborne,sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time:

I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,
Yet within I bear a burning marrow.
I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table,
Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen.
But you will find in me no quality of any worth,
Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.[33]

It is commonly believed that during theMiddle Ages,pepper was often used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. No evidence supports this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely; in the Middle Ages, pepper was aluxury item,affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available, as well.[34]In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable; it is true thatpiperine,the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small.[35]Salt is a much more effective preservative, andsalt-cured meatswere common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices certainly played a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats.

Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from excavations on the Danish-Norwegian flagship,Gribshunden,which sank in the summer of 1495. In 2021, archaeologists recovered more than 2000 peppercorns from the wreck, along with a variety of other spices and exotic foodstuffs including clove, ginger, saffron, and almond. The ship was carrying King Hans to a political summit at the time of its loss. The spices were likely intended for feasts at the summit, which would have included the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State.[36][37]

A depiction ofCalicut,Kerala, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade

Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages – and the monopoly on the trade held byVenice– was one of the inducements that led thePortugueseto seek a sea route to India. In 1498,Vasco da Gamabecame the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa (seeAge of Discovery); asked by Arabs inCalicut(who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seekChristiansand spices ".[38]Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and eventually gained much greater control of trade on the Arabian Sea. The1494 Treaty of Tordesillasgranted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated.

However, the Portuguese monopolized the spice trade for 150 years. Portuguese even became the lingua franca of the then known world. The spice trade made Portugal rich. However in the 17th century, the Portuguese lost most of their valuable Indian Ocean trade to theDutchand theEnglish,who, taking advantage of the Spanish rule over Portugal during theIberian Union(1580–1640), occupied by force almost all Portuguese interests in the area. The pepper ports of Malabar began to trade increasingly with the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.7

Pepper harvested for the European trade, from a manuscriptLivre des merveilles deMarco Polo(The book of the marvels of Marco Polo)

As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.[39]

China

[edit]

It is possible that black pepper was known inChinain the second century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng ( đường mông ) are correct. Sent byEmperor Wuto what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something calledjujiangor "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets ofShu,an area in what is now theSichuanprovince. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made frombetelleaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.[40]

In the third century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, ashujiaoor "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a fourth-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper.[41]By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's nativeSichuan pepper(the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).[citation needed]

Marco Polotestifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China, when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay (Hangzhou): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs."[42]

During the course of theMing treasure voyagesin the early 15th century, AdmiralZheng Heand his expeditionary fleets returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity.[43]

Traditional medicine, phytochemicals, and research

[edit]
"There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!". Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing —Alice in Wonderland(1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill.

Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and atraditional medicine.Pepper appears in the BuddhistSamaññaphala Sutta,chapter five, as one of the few medicines a monk is allowed to carry.[44]Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure several illnesses, such asconstipation,insomnia,oralabscesses,sunburn,andtoothaches,among others.[45]

Pepper containsphytochemicals,[46]includingamides,piperidines,andpyrrolidines.[47]

Pepper is known to causesneezing.Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing.[48]Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.

Nutrition

[edit]

Onetablespoon(6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts ofvitamin K(13% of thedaily valueor DV),iron(10% DV), andmanganese(18% DV), with trace amounts of otheressential nutrients,protein,anddietary fibre.[49]

Flavour

[edit]
Handheld pepper mills with black (left) and mixed (right) peppercorns

Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly frompiperinederived from both the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that.[50]Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as thecapsaicinfound inchili peppers.[51]The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also containsaroma-contributingterpenes,includinggermacrene(11%),limonene(10%),pinene(10%),alpha-phellandrene(9%), andbeta-caryophyllene(7%),[52]which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as the fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavours when in excess: Primarily3-methylindole(pig manure-like),4-methylphenol(horse manure),3-methylphenol(phenolic), andbutyric acid(cheese).[53]The aroma of pepper is attributed torotundone(3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)azulene-1(2H)-one), asesquiterpeneoriginally discovered in the tubers ofCyperus rotundus,which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in someShiraz wines.[54]

Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve its spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which cantransformpiperine into nearly tastelessisochavicine.[55]Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheldpepper millsor grinders, which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this as an alternative to pepper shakers that dispense ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but themortar and pestleused earlier for crushing pepper have remained a popular method for centuries, as well.[56]

Enhancing the flavour profile of peppercorns (including piperine and essential oils), prior to processing, has been attempted through the postharvest application of ultraviolet-C light (UV-C).[57]

See also

[edit]

Media related toPiper nigrumat Wikimedia Commons Data related toPiper nigrumat Wikispecies Pepperat the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject

  • False black pepper–Embelia ribesis a species in the family Primulaceae (theprimrose family)

References

[edit]
  1. ^"Piper nigrum".Germplasm Resources Information Network.Agricultural Research Service,United States Department of Agriculture.Retrieved2 March2008.
  2. ^abcHarrison, Paul (27 January 2016)."What Are The Different Kinds of Peppercorns?".Food Republic.Retrieved21 November2019.
  3. ^Sen, Colleen Taylor (2004).Food Culture in India – Food culture around the world.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 58.ISBN978-0-313-32487-1.Peppers, called the king of spices, are the dried berries of a tropical vine native to Kerala, which is India's major producer
  4. ^Hajeski, Nancy J (2016).National Geographic Complete Guide to Herbs and Spices: Remedies, Seasonings, and Ingredients to Improve Your Health and Enhance Your Life.National Geographic Books. p. 236.ISBN978-1-4262-1588-9.
  5. ^(2018, February 6). These are the world’s three most traded spices. ITC.https://intracen.org/news-and-events/news/these-are-the-worlds-three-most-traded-spices
  6. ^abc"Pepper".Oxford English Dictionary(OED).Vol. 7 N–Poy (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press.1913. p. 663.
  7. ^Srinivasa Iyengar, P. T.(1912).History of the Indian people. Life in ancient India in the age of the mantras.Madras: Srinivasa Varadachari & Co. p. 8.OCLC613210854.
  8. ^Higgins, Edward (25 May 2015)."Where Do Peppercorns Come From?".Farmers' Almanac.Retrieved2 May2022.
  9. ^ab"Why Is Pepper Black? – Know Your Pantry".knowyourpantry.com.22 October 2021.Retrieved24 May2022.
  10. ^"Cleaner technology for white pepper production".The Hindu Business line.27 March 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2008.Retrieved29 January2009.
  11. ^Ochef,Using fresh green peppercornsArchived4 September 2011 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 6 November 2005.
  12. ^Katzer, Gernot (2006).PepperArchived5 December 2012 at theWayback Machine.Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  13. ^ab"Black Pepper Cultivation and Harvest".Thompson Martinez. Archived fromthe originalon 9 August 2014.Retrieved14 May2014.
  14. ^"Piper nigrum Linnaeus".Flora of China.
  15. ^abJaramillo, M. Alejandra; Manos (2001). "Phylogeny and Patterns of Floral Diversity in the Genus Piper (Piperaceae)".American Journal of Botany.88(4): 706–16.doi:10.2307/2657072.JSTOR2657072.PMID11302858.
  16. ^abManjunath Hegde, Bomnalli (19 October 2013)."Meet the pepper queen".Deccan Herald.No. Bangalore.Retrieved22 January2015.
  17. ^ab"Pepper (piper spp.), World regions/Production/Crops for 2019 (from pick list)".Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistical Division (FAOSTAT). 2019.Retrieved25 March2021.
  18. ^"Karvy's special Reports — Seasonal Outlook Report Pepper"(PDF).Karvy Comtrade Limited. 15 May 2008. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 January 2018.Retrieved29 January2008.
  19. ^Parthasarthy, V. A. (2008).Chemistry of spices.CABI Pub.ISBN978-1-84593-405-7.
  20. ^Aggarwal, Bharat B.; Kunnumakkara, Ajaikumar B. (2009).Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Uses of Spices: Modern Uses for Ancient Medicine.World Scientific. pp. 26–27.ISBN978-981-283-791-2.Retrieved28 March2022.
  21. ^J. Innes Miller,The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. 80
  22. ^"Artefacts from the lost Port of Muziris."Archived13 January 2016 at theWayback MachineThe Hindu. 3 December 2014.
  23. ^"Muziris, at last?"Archived23 July 2021 at theWayback MachineR. Krishnakumar,www.frontline.inFrontline, 10–23 April 2010.
  24. ^"Pattanam richest Indo-Roman site on Indian Ocean rim."Archived13 January 2016 at theWayback MachineThe Hindu. 3 May 2009.
  25. ^Prof. George Menachery; Fr. Werner Chakkalakkal, CMI (10 January 2001)."Cranganore: Past and Present".Kodungallur – The Cradle of Christianity in India.Archived fromthe originalon 23 December 2013.Retrieved11 May2016.
  26. ^Dalby, p. 93.
  27. ^Stephanie Fitzgerald (8 September 2008).Ramses II, Egyptian Pharaoh, Warrior, and Builder.Compass Point Books. p. 88.ISBN978-0-7565-3836-1.Retrieved29 January2008.
  28. ^abYoung, p. 25.
  29. ^From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation.Text onlineArchived23 March 2021 at theWayback Machine.
  30. ^Gibbon, Edward (1873) [1781].History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.Vol. III (New ed.). Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger. p. 272f79.OCLC669186315.
  31. ^J. Norwich,Byzantium: The Early Centuries,134
  32. ^Innes Miller,The Spice Trade,p. 83
  33. ^Translation from Turner, p 94. The riddle's answer is of coursepepper.
  34. ^Dalby, p. 156; also Turner, pp. 108–109, though Turner does go on to discuss spices (not pepper specifically) being used to disguise the taste of partially spoiled wine or ale.
  35. ^H. J. D. Dorman; S. G. Deans (2000). "Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils".Journal of Applied Microbiology.88(2): 308–16.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00969.x.PMID10736000.S2CID21788355.Spices, which are used as integral ingredients in cuisine or added as flavouring agents to foods, are present in insufficient quantities for their antimicrobial properties to be significant.
  36. ^Larsson, Mikael; Foley, Brendan (26 January 2023)."The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea".PLOS ONE.18(1): e0281010.Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1881010L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281010.ISSN1932-6203.PMC9879437.PMID36701280.
  37. ^Foley, Brendan (31 January 2024)."Interim Report on Gribshunden (1495) Excavations: 2019–2021".Acta Archaeologica.94(1): 132–145.doi:10.1163/16000390-09401052.ISSN0065-101X.
  38. ^Prasad, p. 3.
  39. ^Jaffee, p. 10.
  40. ^Dalby, pp. 74–75. The argument thatjujiangwas long pepper goes back to the fourth century CE botanical writings of Ji Han; Hui-lin Li's 1979 translation of and commentary on Ji Han's work makes the case that it wasPiper nigrum.
  41. ^Dalby, p. 77.
  42. ^Yule, Henry;Cordier, Henri, Translation fromThe Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier EditionArchived9 May 2008 at theWayback Machine,Vol. 2, Dover.ISBN0-486-27587-6.p. 204.
  43. ^Finlay, Robert (2008). "The Voyages of Zheng He: Ideology, State Power, and Maritime Trade in Ming China".Journal of the Historical Society.8(3): 337.doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2008.00250.x.
  44. ^Thanissaro Bhikkhu(30 November 1990).Buddhist Monastic Code II.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-36708-0.Retrieved29 January2008.
  45. ^Turner, p. 160.
  46. ^Dawid, Corinna; Henze, Andrea; Frank, Oliver; Glabasnia, Anneke; Rupp, Mathias; Büning, Kirsten; Orlikowski, Diana; Bader, Matthias; Hofmann, Thomas (2012). "Structural and Sensory Characterization of Key Pungent and Tingling Compounds from Black Pepper (Piper nigrumL.) ".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.60(11): 2884–2895.doi:10.1021/jf300036a.PMID22352449.
  47. ^James A. Duke (16 August 1993).CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops.CRC Press. p. 395.ISBN978-0-8493-3620-1.Retrieved29 January2009.
  48. ^U.S. Library of Congress Science Reference Services, "Everyday Mysteries",Why does pepper make you sneeze?Archived31 October 2022 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 12 November 2005.
  49. ^"Nutrition facts for black pepper, one tablespoon (6 g); USDA Nutrient Database, version SR-21".Conde Nast. 2014.Retrieved25 October2014.
  50. ^Pepper.Tis-gdv.de. Retrieved on 31 October 2012.
  51. ^Lawless, Harry T.; Heymann, Hildegarde (2010).Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles and Practices.Springer. pp. 62–3.ISBN978-1-4419-6488-5.
  52. ^Jirovetz, L; Buchbauer, G; Ngassoum, M. B.; Geissler, M (2002)."Aroma compound analysis of Piper nigrum and Piper guineense essential oils from Cameroon using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography, solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and olfactometry".Journal of Chromatography A.976(1–2): 265–75.doi:10.1016/s0021-9673(02)00376-x.PMID12462618.
  53. ^Steinhaus, Martin; Schieberle, Peter (28 June 2005). "Role of the Fermentation Process in Off-odorant Formation in White Pepper: On-site Trial in Thailand".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53(15): 6056–6060.doi:10.1021/jf050604s.PMID16028995.
  54. ^Siebert, Tracey E.; Wood, Claudia; Elsey, Gordon M.; Alan (2008). "Determination of Rotundone, the Pepper Aroma Impact Compound, in Grapes and Wine".J. Agric. Food Chem.56(10): 3745–3748.doi:10.1021/jf800184t.PMID18461962.
  55. ^McGee, p. 428.
  56. ^Montagne, Prosper (2001).Larousse Gastronomique.Hamlyn. p. 726.ISBN978-0-600-60235-4.OCLC47231315."Mill".
  57. ^Collings, Emma R.; Alamar Gavidia, M. Carmen; Cools, Katherine; Redfern, Sally; Terry, Leon A. (February 2018)."Effect of UV-C on the physiology and biochemical profile of fresh Piper nigrum berries".Postharvest Biology and Technology.136:161–165.doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2017.11.007.PMC5727672.PMID29398783.

Bibliography

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_pepper&oldid=1234024679"