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Peranakan Chinese

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This article is about Peranakans with Chinese ancestry. For Peranakans with Indian ancestry, seeChitty.For Peranakans with Eurasian ancestry, seeKristang.For Peranakan Muslims of Indian and Malay descent, seeJawi Peranakan.

Peranakan Chinese
Khạp khạp nương nhạ
Baba Nyonya
Baba Yaya
Kiau Seng
A photograph of Peranakan wedding couple – Chung Guat Hooi, the daughter of KapitanChung Thye Phinand Khoo Soo Beow, the son of Khoo Heng Pan, both of Penang – from a museum inPenang
Total population
8,000,000+ (estimates)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,[2]Southern Thailand[3]
Languages
Baba Malayand othervarieties of Malay,Penang Hokkienand othervarieties of Chinese,Indonesian,Sundanese,Javanese,Betawi,Southern Thai,English,Dutch
Religion
Majority:
Mahayana Buddhism,Christianity,Confucianism,Taoism
Minority:Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Chinese diaspora,Benteng people,Bangka Island Peranakan Chinese,Sino-Natives,Malaysian Chinese,Thai Chinese,Chinese Singaporeans,Chinese Indonesians,Sri Lankan Malays
Peranakan Chinese
Chinese name
ChineseKhạp khạp nương nhạ
Thai name
ThaiBaba Yaya / Baba Phuket
Malay name
MalayBaba Nyonya / Cina Peranakan / Cina Selat
Indonesian name
IndonesianKiau Seng / Tionghoa Selat

ThePeranakan Chinese(/pəˈrɑːnəˌkɑːn,-kən/) are anethnic groupdefined by their genealogical descent from the first waves ofSouthern Chinesesettlers tomaritime Southeast Asia,known asNanyang(Chinese:Nam dương;pinyin:nán yáng;lit.'Southern Ocean'), namely theBritish Colonial ruledports in theMalay Peninsulaand theIndonesian Archipelago,as well asSingapore.[4][5]Peranakan culture, especially in the dominant Peranakan centres ofMalacca,Singapore,Penang,PhuketandTangerang,is characterized by its unique hybridization of ancient Chinese culture with the local cultures of theNusantararegion, the result of a centuries-long history oftransculturationandinterracial marriage.

Immigrants from the southern provinces of China arrived in significant numbers in the region between the 14th and 17th centuries, taking abode in the Malay Peninsula (where their descendants in Malacca, Singapore and Penang are referred to asBaba–Nyonya); the Indonesian Archipelago (where their descendants are referred to asKiau–Seng);[6]theSouthern Thailand(where their descendants are referred to asBaba-Yaya), primarily inPhuket,Trang,Phang Nga,Takua PaandRanong;[7][8]Terengganu(where their descendants are referred to asCheng Mua Lang)[9]andNorth Borneofrom the 18th century (where their descendants inSabahare also referred to asSino-Natives). Intermarriage between these Chinese settlers and theirMalay,Thai,Javaneseor other predecessors in the region contributed to the emergence of a distinctive hybrid culture and ostensiblephenotypicdifferences.[10][11]Through colonisation of the region, the impact and presence of the Peranakan Chinese spread beyond Nusantara.[12]InSri Lanka,the Peranakan Chinese went on to contribute to the development of theSri Lankan Malay identitythat emerged in the nation duringDutch rule.[12]

The Peranakans are considered amultiracialcommunity, with the caveat that individual family histories vary widely and likewise self-identification with multiracialism as opposed to Chineseness varies widely.[11][13]The Malay/Indonesian phrase "orang Cina bukan Cina" ( "a not-Chinese Chinese person" )[14]encapsulates the complex relationship between Peranakan identity and Chinese identity. The particularities of genealogy and the unique syncretic culture are the main features that distinguish the Peranakan from descendants of later waves of Chinese immigrants to the region.

Terminology[edit]

Etymology[edit]

The wordPeranakanis a grammaticalinflectionof theMalayandIndonesianwordanak,meaningchildoroffspring.With the addition of the prefixper-and the suffix-anto the rootanak,the modified wordperanakanhas a variety of meanings. Among other things, it can meanwomb,or it can be used as a designator of genealogical descent, connoting ancestry or lineage, including great-grandparents or more-distant ancestors. On its own, when used in common parlance, the word "peranakan" does not denote a specific ethnicity of descent unless followed by a subsequent qualifying noun. For examplePeranakan Tionghoa/Cinamay simply mean "Chinese descendants"; likewiseJawi Peranakancan mean "Arab descendants", orPeranakan Belanda"Dutch descendants".[15][16]

However, in a semantic shift, the wordperanakanhas come to be used as a "metaphorical" adjective that has the meaning of "locally born but non-indigenous".[11]In Indonesian, it can denote "hybrid" or "crossbred".[17]Thus the term "Peranakan Cina" or "Peranakan Tionghoa" can have the literal or archaic meaning of "Chinese womb" or "Chinese descendants" or "Chinese ancestry" or "descended from the Chinese" —but more latterly has come to mean "locally born but non-indigenous Chinese" or even "half-casteChinese ". The semantic shift is presumed to have arisen from the thorough hybridization orassimilationof the earliest Chinese or other non-indigenous settlers in the Malay Archipelago such that their ethnic heritage needed to be specified whenever referring to them, either to avoid confusion or to emphasise difference. The designatorperanakan—in its original sense simply connoting "descendant of X ethnicity", or "the wombs of X" —emerged as the name for entire ethnic groups that were "locally born but non-indigenous" or perceived to be "hybrid" and "crossbred", and, in time, the latter meaning has come to predominate. It should also be noted that the broadness of the semantic range ofperanakanmeans that it can have significantly different connotations in different parts of the Nusantara region and across different dialects or variants of the Malay and Indonesian languages.

The wordPeranakan,which can have very broad and labile meanings inMalayand Indonesian and, when used in common parlance, is simply an indicator of heritage or descent, may also be used to refer to other ethnic groups in the same region. Owing to the broad meaning of the term 'peranakan', the term is also encountered when referring to other communities in the region with similar histories of immigration and assimilation. For example, theChittymay accurately refer to themselves as 'Indian Hindu Peranakans', meaning "of Indian Hindu descent" or "locally born but non-indigenous Indian Hindu". Likewise theKristangmay accurately refer to themselves as 'Eurasian Peranakans'.[18]The name of theJawi Pekanpeople is derived from 'Peranakan',Jawibeing the JavanisedArabic script,andPekanbeing a colloquial contraction ofPeranakan.[16]

Chinese Peranakan[edit]

Njonja Majoor-titulair Be Biauw Tjoan(née Tan Ndjiang Nio), a prominent member of theCabang Atasaristocracy

The prominence of Peranakan Chinese culture, however, has led to the common elision whereby 'Peranakan' may simply be taken to refer to the Peranakan Chinese, i.e. the culturally unique descendants of the earliest Chinese settlers in the Malay Archipelago, as opposed to the other smaller groups that also justifiably call themselves 'peranakan'. For some Peranakans of Chinese descent, calling oneself "Peranakan" without the qualifier "Chinese" can be a way of asserting an ethnic identity distinct from and independent of Chineseness (though such a use of "Peranakan" as a single-wordethnonymmay clash with the desire of other groups of non-Chinese descent to equally call themselves "Peranakan" ).[13][19]

Later waves of immigrants to South East Asia are generally referred to using larger umbrella terms such asMalaysian Chinese,Chinese Singaporean,Chinese Indonesian or Tionghoa,orThai Chinese.

Straits Chinese[edit]

One of the sub-groups of Chinese-Peranakan,Straits ChineseorStraits-born Chinesewere defined as those born or living in theStraits Settlements:a British colony consisting ofMalacca,Penang,andSingaporewhich was established in 1826.[20]Straits Chinese were not considered Baba Nyonya unless they displayed certain Sino-Malay syncretic attributes, in terms of attire worn, food, spoken language, choice of education, preferred career choices, choice of religion and loyalties.[20]

However, given that 'Straits Chinese' is a geographical designator specific to the former British colonies in the region, whereas 'Peranakan Chinese' is a broader genealogical designator covering all parts of the Nusantara region where Chinese people settled (including areas colonized by the Dutch, who would not have used the word 'Straits'), the two terms cannot be said to fully overlap or be interchangeable. Someone who is said to be 'Straits Chinese' in British colonial documents might, for example, be non-Peranakan, i.e. a person who arrived in the Nusantara region during much later periods of Chinese migration.

Conversely, the other Dutch, Malay and Siamese-speaking Peranakan Chinese in Dutch East Indies, Siam and Malaya would be unlikely to refer to themselves using the English term 'Straits Chinese'.

Baba-Nyonya[edit]

The Peranakan Chinese commonly refer to themselves as Baba-Nyonya. The termBabais an honorific for Straits Chinese men. It originated as a Hindi (originally Persian) loan-word borrowed byMalayspeakers as a term of affection for one's grandparents, and became part of the common vernacular. InPenang Hokkien,it is pronouncedbā-bā(inPe̍h-ōe-jī),[21]and sometimes written with thephonetic loan charactersKhạp khạp. Female Straits-Chinese descendants were either called or styled themselvesNyonyas.Nyonya(also spellednyonyahornonya) is a Malay andIndonesianhonorific used to refer to a foreign married lady. It is a loan word, borrowed from the old Portuguese word for ladydonha(compare, for instance,Macanese creolenhonhaspoken on Macau, which was a Portuguese colony for 464 years). Because Malays at that time had a tendency to address all foreign women (and perhaps those who appeared foreign) asnyonya,they used that term for Straits-Chinese women as well. It gradually became more exclusively associated with them.[22][23]InPenang Hokkien,it is pronouncednō͘-niâ(in Pe̍h-ōe-jī),[21]and sometimes written with the phonetic loan characters nương nhạ.

Ancestry[edit]

Two Peranakan women at a tin factory inPulau Singkep,Riau Islands.

Many Peranakans identify as Holoh (Hokkien) despite being of numerous origins, such as the descendants of adopted local Malaysian aborigines. A sizeable number are ofTeocheworHakkadescent, including a small minority ofCantonese.

Baba Nyonya are a subgroup within Chinese communities. Peranakan families occasionally arranged brides from China for their sons or arranged marriages for their daughters with newly arrived Chinese immigrants.

There are parallels between the Peranakan Chinese and theCambodian Hokkien,who are descendants of Hoklo Chinese. Likewise thePashuofMyanmar,aBurmese wordfor thePeranakanor Straits Chinese who have settled in Myanmar.[24]

They maintained their culture partially despite their native language gradually disappearing a few generations after settlement.[25]

Popular accounts of the Peranakan Chinese in Malacca, Singapore, and Penang sometimes state exclusive descent from the royal retinue of a purportedMing Dynastyprincess namedHang Li Poor Hong Li-Po[26][27]—mentioned in theMalay Annalsas having made a marriage of alliance with the Sultan of Malacca in the fifteenth century[28]—but the historical evidence for this (likely romanticized) claim is unreliable.[29][30]

A 2021 genetic study of Peranakans in Singapore found that on average, their ancestry was 5–10% Malay.[31]

Language[edit]

Tjhit Liap Seng(1886) byLie Kim Hokwas considered the first Chinese Malay novel.

The language of the Peranakans,Baba Malay(Bahasa Melayu Baba) or Peranakan Malay, is acreole languagerelated to theMalay language(Bahasa Melayu), which contains manyHokkienwords. It is a dying language, and its contemporary use is mainly limited to members of the older generation. It is common for the Peranakan of the older generation (particularly among women) tolatahin Peranakan Malay when experiencing unanticipated shock.[32][33]

The Peranakan Malay spoken by the Malaccan Peranakans community is strongly based on theMalay languageas most of them can only speak little to none of the language of their Chinese forebears.[34]Whereas in the east coast ofPeninsula Malaysia,the Peranakans are known to not only speak a Hokkien version of their own but alsoThaiandKelantanese MalayinKelantanandTerengganu MalayinTerengganu.[35][36]Unlike the rest of the Peranakans in Malaysia, Penang Peranakans are much heavily influenced by a dialect of Hokkien known locally asPenang Hokkien.

InIndonesia,the Peranakan language is mainly based on Indonesian andJavanese,which is mixed with elements of differentChinese varieties,mostly Hokkien. Speakers of the Peranakan language can be found scattered along the northern coastline area throughoutWest Java,Central JavaandEast Java,and also inSpecial Region of Yogyakarta,Indonesia.[37]Young Peranakans can still speak this creole language, although its use is limited to informal occasions.

History[edit]

Hok An Kiong Chinese Temple, Jalan Coklat,Surabayac. 1900 – 1920. Large Chinese communities were already present inJavawhen the Dutch arrived just before the 1600s. Many Chinese had native concubines until a large group of mestizos arose, who spoke Malay or Javanese.

The first Chinese immigrants to settle in the Malay Archipelago arrived from Guangdong and Fujian provinces in the 10th century C.E. They were joined by much larger numbers of the Chinese in the 15th through 17th centuries, following on the heels of the Ming emperor's reopening of Chinese-Malay trade relations in the 15th century.[8]

In the 15th century, some small city-states of the Malay Peninsula often paid tribute to various kingdoms such as those of China andSiam.Close relations with China were established in the early 15th century during the reign ofParameswarawhen AdmiralZheng He(Cheng Ho), a Muslim Chinese, visited Malacca and Java during his expedition (1405–1433). According to a legend in 1459 CE, the Emperor of China sent a princess,Hang Li Po,to the Sultan of Malacca as a token of appreciation for his tribute. The nobles (500 sons of ministers) and servants who accompanied the princess initially settled inBukit Cinaand eventually grew into a class ofStraits-bornChinese known as the Peranakans.

Chinese men inMelakafathered children withJavanese,BatakandBalineseslave women. Their descendants moved to Penang and Singapore during the period of British rule.[38]Chinese men in colonial southeast Asia also obtained slave wives fromNias.Chinese men in Singapore and Penang were supplied with slave wives ofBugis,Batak,andBalineseorigin.[39]: 71 The British colonial government tolerated the importation of slave wives since they improved the standard of living for the slaves and provided contentment to the male population.[39]: 72 The usage of slave women or house maids as wives by the Chinese was widespread.[40]

It cannot be denied, however, that the existence of slavery in this quarter, in former years, was of immense advantage in procuring a female population forPinang.FromAssabanalone, there used to be sometimes 300 slaves, principally females, exported to Malacca and Pinang in a year. The women get comfortably settled as the wives of opulent Chinese merchants, and live in the greatest comfort. Their families attach these men to the soil; and many never think of returning to their native country. The female population of Pinang is still far from being upon a par with the male; and the abolition therefore of slavery, has been a vast sacrifice to philanthropy and humanity. As the condition of the slaves who were brought to the British settlements, was materially improved, and as they contributed so much to the happiness of the male population, and the general prosperity of the settlement, I am disposed to think (although I detest the principles of slavery as much as any man), that the continuance of the system here could not, under the benevolent regulations which were in force to prevent abuse, have been productive of much evil. The sort of slavery indeed which existed in the British settlements in this quarter, had nothing but the name against it; for the condition of the slaves who were brought from the adjoining countries, was always ameliorated by the change; they were well fed and clothed; the women became wives of respectable Chinese; and the men who were in the least industrious, easily emancipated themselves, and many became wealthy. Severity by masters was punished; and, in short, I do not know any race of people who were, and had every reason to be, so happy and contented as the slaves formerly, and debtors as they are now called, who came from the east coast of Sumatra and other places.[41][42] John Anderson – Agent to the Government of Prince of Wales Island

People ofChineseancestry inPhuket,Thailandmake up a significant population, many of whom having descended from tin miners who migrated to the island during the 19th century.[43]The Peranakans there are known as "Phuket Babas"in the local tongue, constitute a fair share of members Chinese community, particularly among those who have family ties with the Peranakans of Penang and Malacca.[7]

Chinese who married local Javanese women and converted to Islam created a distinct Chinese Muslim Peranakan community in Java.[44]Chinese rarely had to convert to Islam to marry Javaneseabanganwomen but a significant number of their offspring did, and Batavian Muslims absorbed the Chinese Muslim community which was descended from converts.[45]Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin.[46][47]

Peranakans were held in high regard by Malays. Some Malays in the past may have taken the word "Baba", referring to Chinese males, and put it into their name, when this used to be the case.[48][49][50]This is not followed by the younger generation, and the currentChinese Malaysiansdo not have the same status or respect as Peranakans used to have.

In Penang, Thai women replaced Nias slave women and Batak slave women as wives of Chinese men after the 1830s when slavery was abolished.[51]

Many Peranakan inJava,Indonesia are descendants of non-Muslim Chinese men who married abangan Javanese Muslim women. Most of the Chinese men did not convert to Islam since their Javanese wives did not ask them to, but a minority of Javanese women asked them to convert so a Chinese Muslim community made out of converts appeared among the Javanese. In the late half of the 19th century, Javanese Muslims became more adherent to Islamic rules due to going on hajj and more Arabs arriving in Java, ordering circumcision for converts. The Batavian Muslims in the 19th century completely absorbed the converted Chinese Muslims who originally had their own separate kapitan and community in the late 18th century. The remaining commoner non-Muslim Chinese Peranakans descended from Chinese men and Javanese Muslim women generally stopped marrying Javanese and the elite Peranakans stopped marrying Javanese completely and instead started only marrying fellow Chinese Peranakans in the 19th century, as they realized they might get absorbed by the Muslims.[52][53]DNA tests done on Chinese Peranakan inSingaporeshowed that those Peranakan who are mixed with Malays are mostly of paternal Han Chinese descent and of maternal Malay descent.[54][55][56][57][58][excessive citations]Peranakans in Malaysia and Singapore formed when non-Muslim Chinese men were able to marry Malay Muslim women a long time ago without converting to Islam. This is no longer the case in modern times where anyone who marries Malay women is required to convert to Islam.[59]

Peranakan, Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya are all names for the descendants of Han Chinese men and their Javanese, Sumatran and Malay wives. Han Chinese men did not allow their women to leave China, so they married local Muslim Javanese and other Southeast Asian women.[60]Dayak women were married by Han Chinese men who settled in Borneo as noted in the 18th century.[61]One Dayak man named Budi mentioned a Chinese man married Budi's sister and that he liked Chinese but he hated Madurese as he was talking about the massacres of Madurese settlers.[62][63]Malay and Dayak ethnically cleansed Madurese settlers from their and in West Kalimantan starting in Sambas from December 1996 to February 2001 after the Sampit fights in December 2000.[64]

The Chinese are perhaps the most important people in Borneo. They have been traders and settlers on the coast from beyond historic times, and, as has just been stated, have for an equally long period mixed with the natives; so that some Dyaks—the Dusuns especially might almost be classed with them. They are not only traders who amass wealth merely to return with it to their own empire, but miners, agriculturists, and producers, without whom it would be difficult to develop the country. The Philippines, Singapore, and Borneo receive, perhaps, a larger number of these immigrants than any other countries. In Borneo they are scattered over the whole seaboard, carrying on a good deal of the river trade, and supplanting in many ways the less energetic Malay. But they are chiefly to be found in West Borneo, especially in the mining districts, as in Sambas and Montrado (Menteradu) in Dutch territory. Numbers are settled around Bau and Bidi, in Sarawak, and in the capital, Kuching. In North Borneo an irruption of some thousands occurred on the opening up of the country, and great numbers are employed on the tobacco plantations lately established. In Labuan, and in Pengaron in South Borneo, the coal mines were worked by Chinese, and they still act as sago-washers in the former island. Bound together by societies with stringent laws, their system of co-operation enables them to prosper where others would fail. In West Borneo they thus became so powerful as to defy the Dutch Government, who had great difficulty in subduing them.[65][66][67]In 1912, Chinese engaged in mass violent riots against Dutch colonial rule in Surayaba and Batavia in the Dutch East Indies.[68]

Among the Straits Chinese (Peranakan) descendants inSulu,the Philippines is Abdusakur Tan II, the governor.[69][70]

Many Straits Chinese (Peranakans) migrated from Singapore to Jolo, Sulu and Mindanao to live and trade among the Moro Muslims like the Tausug people and Maguindanaons and sell weapons, rifles, cannon and opium to them in exchange for gutta-percha.[71]Tausug and Chinese married each other and Chinese also converted to Islam.[72][73]Moros carried out suicide juramentado attacks against the Japanese.[74]Moro juramentados used opium in their attacks against US soldiers.[75][76]American military officers Charles Wilkes saw Sulu Moro Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand (spelling error of Jamalul Kiram) and his sons smoke opium and he had bloodshot eyes because of it.[77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][excessive citations]Datu Uto received Spencer and Enfield rifles from Straits Chinese (Peranakan) merchants.[87][88][89][90][excessive citations]Lantaka swivel bronze cannon were sold by Chinese to the Moros who were fighting the Americans.[91][92][93]A novel was written about this.[94][95][96][97][98][99][excessive citations]

Balinese women, Bugis women and other native women in Indonesia who married Han Chinese men were buried according to Chinese custom with Chinese characters on their gravestones instead of being cremated.[100]

Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya or Peranakan are descended from Malay women and Chinese men.[101]

Culture[edit]

Clothing[edit]

KebayaNyonyaorKebaya Encim,a traditional Peranakan attire.

The Peranakan retained most of their ethnic and religious origins (such as ancestor worship), but assimilated the language and culture of the Malays. The Nyonya's clothing, Baju Panjang (Long Dress) was adapted from the native Malay's Baju Kurung. It is worn with abatiksarong(batik wrap-around skirt) and three kerosang (brooches).Peranakan beaded slipperscalledKasot Manekwere hand-made with much skill and patience: strung, beaded and sewn onto canvas with tiny faceted glass cut beads (known asManek Potong) similar to ones fromBohemia(present-dayCzech Republic).

Traditionalkasot manekdesign often have European floral subjects, with colours influenced by Peranakan porcelain and batik sarongs. They were made into flats or bedroom slippers. But from the 1930s, modern shapes became popular and heels were gradually added.

In Indonesia, the Peranakans develop their ownkebaya,most notablykebaya encim,derived from the nameencimorencito refer to a married Chinese woman.[102]Kebaya encimwas commonly worn by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such asSemarang,Lasem, Tuban,Surabaya,PekalonganandCirebon.It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colours. They also developed their own batik patterns, which incorporate symbols from China. Thekebaya encimfit well with vibrant-coloured kainbatik pesisiran(Javan coastal batik), which incorporated symbols and motives from China; such as dragon, phoenix, peony and lotus. For the Baba they will wear baju lokchuan (which is the Chinese men's full costume) but the younger generation they will wear just the top of it which is the long-sleeved silk jacket with Chinese collar or the batik shirt.

Religion[edit]

A Chinese temple inMakassar,Dutch East Indies(present-day Indonesia) c. 1900 – 1920.

Most Peranakans generally subscribed to Chinese beliefs systems such asTaoism,ConfucianismandHan Buddhism,and evenRoman Christianitynowadays. Just like the Chinese, the Peranakans also celebrateLunar New Year,Lantern Festivaland otherChinese festivals,while adopting the customs of the land they settled in, as well as those of their colonial rulers. There are traces ofPortuguese,Dutch,British,MalayandIndonesianinfluences in Peranakan culture.[20]

Just like in any other cultures, the Peranakans still believe inpantang larang(meaningtaboos) especially among the older generations. In some cases, quite a number the Peranakan'spantang larangare deemed too strict and complex. But today, most Peranakans no longer practice complexpantang larangto keep up with the modern times.

Christianity[edit]

TheKampong Kapor Methodist Church,Singapore.

A significant number of the modern Peranakan community have embracedChristianity,most notably in Indonesia.

In 2019, a new branch of Singapore-specific Peranakan intermarriages were found to exist within the early Roman Catholic Church starting from 1834. This early church was set up by French missionaries (Mission Enstrangeres de Paris Order) in 1832 on Bras Basah Road, on the grounds of the present day Singapore Art Museum. Approximately 26 intermarriages between mainly China-born Teochew men and Melaka Serani, Malay, Peranakan Chinese and Indian women, took place under the auspices of this church, between 1834 and the early 1870s. Most, if not all descendants, identify as Teochew Peranakans today.[103]

In Singapore, theKampong Kapor Methodist Church,founded in 1894 by an Australian missionary,Sophia Blackmore,is considered one of the first Peranakan churches. During its establishment, Sunday service were conducted inBaba Malaylanguage, and it is still one of the languages being used in their services.

Despite living in Muslim majority countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, converting to Christianity allows Peranakans to continue eating pork which is a key part of the Peranakan diet.[104]Moreover, Peranakans were traditionally English educated at missionary schools, notably in Penang.

Islam[edit]

In Indonesia, Peranakan[105]referred to all Indonesian Chinese who had converted to Islam up until the 19th century. This indicated the importance of Islamic identity as a "criterion of indigenization." Later, Peranakan referred to all Indonesian Chinese born in the country, including those of descendants of mixed race unions.[106]Large numbers of Peranakans, many fromFujianhaving prior experience with foreign Muslims who had a dominant position in that provinces most important seaport, adopted Islam in Java, strongly Muslim areas of Indonesia,[107]and Malaysia.[108]As in the case of the Peranakans inCirebon,this conversion process occurred over several centuries[109]and was even recorded before the Dutch seizedJakarta.[110]Many of these Peranakans in Indonesia who converted to Islam would marry into aristocratic dynasties.[110]One organisation of Indonesian Peranakan Muslims is thePersatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia(Association of Indonesian Chinese Muslims), which was formed in 1936 inMedan.[111]Some prominent Peranakan Muslims include the Indonesians Junus Jahja,[112]Abdul Karim Oei Tjeng Hien[113]and Tjio Wie Tay[114]and fromPattani,the Peranakan convert to Islam, Datu Seri Nara, who according to Wybrand of Warwijck was the most important commercial and military figure inPattaniin 1602.[115]

Food[edit]

Main article:Peranakan cuisine
Ayam buah keluak,a traditional Peranakan dish.

Due to the culture of Nyonya and Babas is merged between Malay and Chinese and influence by Indonesia. Malacca was once the world's merchant gathering point enabling the birth of Baba and Nyonya ethnic group. Therefore, the Nyonya food can be summarized as "Malay Archipelago Delicacies of Nanyang Cuisine".[116]

From the Malay influence, a unique"Nyonya" cuisinehas developed using typical Malay spices. Examples arechicken kapitan,a dry chickencurryandinchi kabin,a Nyonya version of fried chicken.Pindang bandengis a common fish soup served in Indonesia during the Chinese New Year and so is a white roundmooncakefromTangerangwhich is normally used during theAutumn Festival.Swikee purwodadiis a Peranakan dish fromPurwodadi,a frog soup dish.

Nyonyalaksais a very popular dish in Malacca,Malaysiawhile another variant calledasam laksais famous in Penang, Malaysia.Pongtehis also another popular and savoury dish of the Malaccan Peranakan community. The main ingredient is onion, black mushroom (optional), chicken (at times pork is used instead of chicken, hence it's calledbabi pongteh) and fermented bean sauce. The Malaccan Nyonyas are well known for this dish.

Other dishes from the east coast ofPeninsular MalaysiaPeranakans inKelantanincludetelur kesum,ayam kerabuandkhau jamare influenced byChinese,MalayandThaicuisine. While inTerengganu,popular Peranakan foods are such as the local version of crab cake,ayam pachokwhich resembles satay with a stronger flavour, fish in spicy tamarind sauce and slow-cooked chicken with palm sugar.[36]

Besides that, Peranakans of Malacca are also well known for a wide variety of traditional cakes (kuehorkue) such aslepak kacang,ang ku kue(a black variant is calledkueh ku hitam),kueh taeornastar,Nyonyabak chang,apom balik(Peranakan's version closely resembles Indonesian'sserabi),kueh bakol,tapae,kueh kochi,kueh bongkong,rempah udang,pulot enti,kueh gulong(another variant iskueh kapit),kueh bolu,galeng galoh(also known asseri muka),kueh bangketand many more. Traditionalkueh(orkue) are sometimes made in conjunction with festivals that the Peranakans celebrate. For example,kueh genggang(also commonly known askueh lapis), is a type of multi layered cake, most often eaten during Chinese New Year to symbolise a ladder of continued prosperity.

A small number of restaurants serving Nyonya food can be found in Penang and Malacca in Malaysia; and Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya in Indonesia.

Marriage[edit]

A Straits Peranakan bride and groom dated 30 May 1939.

It was not uncommon for early Chinese traders to take Malay women from Peninsular Malaya or Sumatra as wives or concubines.[20]Consequently, the Baba Nyonya display a mix of Sino-Malay cultural traits.[20]

Written records from the 19th and early 20th centuries show thatPeranakanmen usually took brides from within the localPeranakancommunity. Peranakan families occasionally imported brides from China and sent their daughters to China to find husbands.

Marriages within the community and of similar stature were the norm during that time. Wealthy men prefigured to marry achin choay:or matrilocal marriage where husband moved in with the wife's family.[20]

Proposals of marriage were made by a gift of apinangan,in a 2-tiered lacquered basket known asBakul Siahin Malaysia orTenong Keranjangin Indonesia, to the intended bride's parents brought by a go-between who speaks on behalf of the suitor. There are rare cases where wealthy Peranakans in the past used highly decorative glided pagoda trays (Botekan Candiin Indonesian) instead of theBakul SiahorTenong Keranjang.Most Peranakans have retained thetraditions of ancestor worship of the Chinese,though some have converted toChristianityandIslam.

The wedding ceremony of the Peranakan is largely based on Chinese tradition, and is one of the most colourful wedding ceremonies in Malaysia. At Malacca weddings, theDondang Sayang,a form of extempore rhyming song in Malay sung and danced by guests at the wedding party, was a highlight. Someone would begin a romantic theme which was carried on by others, each taking the floor in turn, dancing in slow gyrations as they sang. It required quick wit and repartee and often gave rise to laughter and applause when a particularly clever phrase was sung. The melodic accents of the Baba-Nonya and their particular turns of phrase lead to the charm of this performance.

The important wedding rites had to be commenced on auspicious days at specific times, according to thepek ji,the eight Chinese characters annotating one's birth date and time. At these rites,pantangs(taboos) were carefully observed – the wedding rituals had to be legitimised and witnessed by elders, deities and ancestors. Marriages were typically match-made. Parents and elders made the final decision, but the potential bride and bridegroom were also consulted in the process. Wedding items commonly utilised the prosperous colours of red, pink, orange, yellow and gold and were embellished with special motifs to ensure a good marriage. Similar to the Chinese, Peranakans believed that good things always come in pairs, therefore many wedding items came in pairs.

Museums[edit]

Pinang Peranakan Mansion,stately mansion built at the end of the 19th century, residence and office of Kapitan CinaChung Keng Quee.

Historical and cultural items from the Peranakan culture are displayed inBaba Nyonya Heritage Museum,Straits Chinese Jewellery Museumand other cultural establishments on Heeren Street,Jonker Streetand other streets in the same neighbourhood in Malacca; thePinang Peranakan Mansionin Penang, Malaysia; and at thePeranakan Museum,Baba Houseand the Intan Museum inSingapore.Furniture, food, and even traditional clothes of the Baba and Nyonya are exhibited. Free weekly street shows featuring Baba performances, and traditional and pop Chinese cultural performances are found in Jonker Street in Malacca. The shows are part of the night market scene, and are usually crowded with shoppers, both local and foreign.

On 11 November 2011,Benteng Heritage MuseuminTangerang,near Jakarta is opened to display mainly aboutBenteng Chineseuses an old genuine traditional Chinese Peranakan house. And in August 2013, theMuseum Peranakan Indonesiawas officially opened by theYayasan Budaya Tionghoa Indonesia.The museum is located at theCheng Ho Museum,next to the Hakka Museum, at the pavilion ofTaman Budaya Tionghoa Indonesia,Taman Mini Indonesia Indahin Jakarta.

Other Peranakan cultural collections such as batik and bead works can also be found in museums outside ofSouth East Asia.Honolulu Museum of ArtandAustralian Museumare known to exhibit such collections.[citation needed]

Apart from that, exhibition of Peranakan Chitty history, antiques and culture can be seen at the Chitty Museum in Kampung Chitty, Malacca, Malaysia. In 2013, there were controversies of development at the expense of demolishing part of Kampung Chitty, a historical and cultural village.[117]A proposal to construct a condominium, a hotel and a road cutting through the village are seen as a threat affecting the residents and a temple built in 1827.[118]

In Kelantan, thePersatuan Peranakan Cina Kelantanor the Kelantan Chinese Peranakan Association (abbreviated as PPCK) have opened a gallery which provides visitors with various insights into the Kelantanese Chinese Peranakan culture.[119]

Political affinity[edit]

Multichrome Modern Chinese-made replica enamel porcelain tea tray with a traditional Peranakan "fenghuang".

Many Peranakan were active in trade and considered supportive of continued European rule in Malaysia and Indonesia.[20]Peranakans often played the role of middleman of the British and the Chinese, or the Chinese and Malays, because they were mostly English educated and spoke Malay more fluently than newer Chinese immigrants.[citation needed]

By the middle of the twentieth century, most Peranakan were English or Dutch-educated at Western-style institutions. Peranakans readily embracedWestern cultureand education as a means to advance economically thus administrative and civil service posts were often filled by prominent Straits Chinese. Many in the community chose to convert to Christianity due to its perceived prestige and proximity to the preferred company of British and Dutch officials.[20]

The Peranakan community thereby became very influential in Malacca andSingaporeand were known also as theKing's Chinesedue to their loyalty to the British Crown. Because of their interaction with different cultures and languages, most Peranakans were (and still are) trilingual, being able to converse in Chinese, Malay, and English.[citation needed]Common vocations were as merchants, traders, and general intermediaries between China, Malaya and the West; the latter were especially valued by the British and Dutch.[citation needed]

Things started to change in the first half of the 20th century, with some Peranakans starting to support Malaysian and Indonesian independence. In Indonesia three Chinese communities started to merge and become active in the political scene.[citation needed]

They were also among the pioneers of Indonesian newspapers. In their fledgling publishing companies, they published their own political ideas along with contributions from other Indonesian writers. In November 1928, the Chinese weekly Sin Po (Chinese:Tân báo;pinyin:xīn bào) was the first paper to openly publish the text of the national anthemIndonesia Raya.On occasion, those involved in such activities ran a concrete risk of imprisonment or even of their lives, as the Dutch colonial authorities banned nationalistic publications and activities.[citation needed]

Chinese were active in supporting the independence movement during the 1940s Japanese occupation, when the all but the so-called "Overseas Chinese Association", or residents of Chinese ancestry (Chinese:Hoa kiều trung hội;pinyin:Huáqiáo Zhōnghuì) were banned by the Japanese military authorities. Some notable pro-independence activists wereSiauw Giok Tjhan,Liem Koen Hian,andYap Tjwan Bing,a member ofPanitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia,who in the 1960s became a citizen of the United States.

Chinese cultural Influence on Southeast Asian Muslims[edit]

Muslim Southeast Asians adopted Chinese symbols like the colour yellow for royals, including Malays, Javanese and Moros.

One Dutch mentioned "yellow Chinese belts which only the Javanese will buy."[120]

Malays and Dayaks in Borneo did not use milk or dairy probably due to Chinese influence.[121]

Malays adopted theChinese zodiac.[122]TheDragon(Loong) is normally equated with thenāgabut it is sometimes called Big Snake (ular besar) while theSnake signis called Second Snake (ular sani). This is also recorded in a 19th-century manuscript compiled byJohn Leyden.[123]

Current status[edit]

Peranakan culture has started to disappear in Malaysia and Singapore. Without support from the colonial government for their perceived ethnic independence, government policies in both countries following independence from colonial rule have resulted in the assimilation of Peranakans back into mainstream Chinese culture. Singapore classifies the Peranakans as ethnically Chinese, so they receive formal instruction inMandarin Chineseas a second language (in accordance with the "Mother Tongue Policy" ) instead of Malay. In Malaysia, the standardisation of Malay asBahasa Melayu—required for all ethnic groups—has led to a disappearance of the unique characteristics of Baba Malay.

Mass wedding ceremony ofBenteng Chinese,Jakarta2012.

In Indonesia, the Peranakan culture appears to be losing popularity to modern Western culture, but to some degree the Peranakans are still trying to retain their language, cuisines and customs. Young Peranakans still speak their creole language, although many young women do not wear thekebaya.Marriages normally follow the western culture because the traditional Peranakan customs are losing popularity. Only three communities of Peranakan still uphold the traditional Peranakan wedding customs, Tangerang (by the Cina Benteng people), Makassar and Padang. Of the three communities the Cina Benteng people are the most adherent to the Peranakan culture, but their numbers are dwindling.[124]

Cina Benteng people are normally poor people and many seek, or have sought, opportunities in other areas. Some organisations do try to ease their burden of living.[125]As of May 2012, 108 Cina Benteng families are facing eviction from their traditional homes, the reason given by the Tangerang government being that the area they occupy is actually meant as a green space for the city. Most of these families are low income and have nowhere to move to, as the government is not providing enough money for them to relocate. Several traumatic eviction attempts at 2010 and 2011 ended in violence.[126]

The migration of some Peranakan families, particularly the well-to-do, has led to a small Peranakan diaspora to neighbouring countries, mainly fromVietnam[127]toAustralia.[128]The1998 anti-Chinese riotsin Indonesia during thefall of Suhartoterrorised many Chinese Indonesians and Peranakans alike, causing Chinese Indonesian communities affected by the riots to leave the country. However, these communities are very small, and with the increasing use of the various languages in their respective countries, the use of Peranakan Malay or Baba Malay has been diluted, especially among the younger generation.

Current associations[edit]

Associations of Chinese Peranakans includeThe Peranakan Association Singapore (TPAS),Aspertina (Asosiasi Peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia) and theGunong Sayang Association (GSA),[129]a performing arts group in Singapore. The Peranakan Association Singapore has over 2,000 members, and the Gunong Sayang Association has about 200 members. The Peranakan Association Singapore consists of a mix of young and old members, while the Gunung Sayang Association has primarily elderly or retired members. In Malacca, there is an Indian Peranakan Association known as the Chitty Melaka. This is a tightly knit community of Saivite Hindus.[130]Chitty Peranakans display considerable similarity to Chinese Peranakans in terms of dressing, songs, folk dances andpantun.

In Malaysia, there are Peranakan associations in Malacca, KL, Penang, Kelantan, and Terengganu. The Peranakan association that is based in Kelantan is named thePersatuan Peranakan Cina Kelantan(lit. the "Kelantan Chinese Peranakan Association", abbreviated as PPCK) while the one that is located in Terengganu is thePersatuan Peranakan Cina Terengganu(lit. the "Terengganu Chinese Peranakan Association" ).[131][132]

The Thai Peranakans live largely in Phuket and have an Association as well.

There are also Peranakan associations in Australia: Melbourne, Perth and New South Wales.

In popular culture[edit]

Cover art for aHong Kongfilm, Nyonyah (1952) featuring aKebayaNyonya.

Interest in the Peranakan culture had begun as early as the 1950s with films fromHong Kongsuch as theNiangre / Nyonyah(Yue Feng, 1952),Fengyu Niuche Shui / Rainstorm in Chinatown(Yan Jun 1956),Niangre Yu Baba / Nonya And Baba(Yan Jun 1956), andNiangre Zhi Lian / Love With A Malaysian Girl(Lui Kei, 1969).[133]

In Malaysia, a comedy drama series,Baba Nyonyawas popular in the 1990s. The series is recognised by the Malaysian Book Of Records as the longest-running TV series in the country ever, lasting from the late 1980s until 2000, with 509 episodes in total.[134]

Along the passing of theReform Erain Indonesia and the removal of the ban on Chinese culture, in 1999, Indonesian writerRemy Syladoreleased a novel calledCa-Bau-Kan: Hanya Sebuah Dosaraised the Peranakan culture and history in Indonesia. The novel was adapted into a film calledCa-Bau-KanbyNia Dinatain 2002.Riri Rizadirected a biographical film on an Indonesian student activist namedSoe Hok Gie(played byNicholas Saputra), entitledGiein 2005. The film is based on a diaryCatatan Seorang Demonstranwritten bySoe Hok Gie,features a glimpse into the everyday life of an Indonesian Peranakan family in the 1960s. A novel that elevates the history and culture of the Benteng Chinese (Cina Bentengis another term in Indonesian referring to Peranakan) titledBonsai: Hikayat Satu Keluarga Cina Bentengwritten by Pralampita Lembahmata and published by Gramedia in 2011.

In 2008, a Singaporean drama seriesThe Little Nyonyawas aired in Singapore, and later gained popularity inAsiaespecially withinSouth East Asiaregion. The filming of the drama took place in Malacca, Penang andIpoh,Malaysia.

In Yasmin Ahmad filmsSepetandGubrahas featured Peranakan character as the lead actor's mother played by Peranakan actress Tan Mei Ling. Lead actors from the 1990sBaba Nyonyaseries were also featured inNamewee's multi-language and multi-cultural film,Nasi Lemak 2.0in 2011, showcasing Peranakan culture.

Notable Peranakans[edit]

Indonesia[edit]

For notable Indonesian people of Chinese descent, seeList of Chinese Indonesians.

Malaysia[edit]

For notable Malaysian people of Chinese descent, seeList of Malaysian Chinese.

Singapore[edit]

See also[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

  • Tong, Lillian (2014).Straits Chinese Gold Jewellery.Malaysia: Penang Peranakan Mansion.
  • Santosa, Iwan (2012).Peranakan Tionghoa Di Nusantara.Indonesia: ASPERTINA & Kompas Penerbit Buku.ISBN978-979-709-641-0.
  • Kee, Ming-Yuet; Low Hock Seng (2009).Peranakan Chinese Porcelain: Vibrant Festive Ware Of The Straits Chinese.Singapore: Tuttle.ISBN978-0-8048-4007-1.
  • Somers, Mary F. (2009).Peranakan Chinese Politics In Indonesia.Singapore: Equinox Publishing.ISBN978-602-8397-35-3.
  • Ho, Wing Meng (2008).Straits Chinese Furniture: A Collector's Guide.Singapore: Marshall Cavendish.ISBN978-981-261-665-4.
  • Mahmood, Datin Seri Endon (2004).The Nyonya Kebaya: A Century of Straits Chinese Costume.Malaysia: Periplus Editions.ISBN978-0-7946-0273-4.
  • Teo, Kok Seong (2003).Peranakan Chinese of Kelantan: A Study of the Culture, Language & Communication of an Assimilated Group in Malaysia.Malaysia: Coronet Books Inc.ISBN978-1-901919-21-9.
  • Rudolph, Jürgen (1998).Reconstructing Identities: A Social History of the Babas in Singapore.Singapore: Ashgate.
  • Khoo, Joo Ee (1998).The Straits Chinese: A Cultural History.Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Pepin Press.ISBN978-90-5496-008-9.
  • Chang, Queeny (1981).Memories of a Nonya.Singapore and Selangor, Malaysia: Eastern Universities Press Sdn Bhd.ISBN978-9971-71-145-0.
  • Lee, Chin Koon(1974).Mrs. Lee's Cookbook: Nonya Recipes And Other Favourite Recipes.Malaysia: s.n.ASINB0006CNVR6.

External links[edit]

Library resourcesabout
Peranakan Chinese
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