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Perkinsea

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Perkinsea
Double infection of two lateDinovorax pyriformistrophontsin aProrocentrum micanscell. Scale bar: 10 μm.
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Subphylum: Dinozoa
Infraphylum: Perkinsozoa
Norén &Moestrup1999[2]
Class: Perkinsea
Levine 1978[1]
Clades
Synonyms
  • Perkinsasida
  • Perkinsorida
  • Perkinsemorphina

Perkinsidsaresingle-celledprotiststhat live asintracellular parasitesof a variety of other organisms. They are classified as theclassPerkinseawithin the monotypicphylumPerkinsozoa.It is part of theeukaryotic supergroupAlveolata,along withdinoflagellates,their closest relatives, and another parasitic group known asApicomplexa.Perkinsids are found in aquatic environments, as parasites of dinoflagellates and various animals.

Description

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All known Perkinsozoa areintracellular parasitesof a range of organisms, particularly microalgae and animals.[3]Species ofParviluciferaceae,PararosariidaeandMaranthosare parasites ofdinoflagellates.[4][5]Rastrimonasparasitizecryptophytealgae.[5]Xcellidae,PerkinsidaeandAcrocoelusare parasites of various animals:fish,[6]bivalve molluscs[7]andacorn worms,respectively.[8]Perkinsozoa are found in aquatic environments, both marine[2]and freshwater.[9]

Systematics

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Taxonomic history

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Perkinsids were first described by Norman D. Levine in 1978, as the classPerkinseawithinAlveolata.Levine only included onegenus,Perkinsus,described in the same publication.[1]Later, the same author treated this group as classPerkinsasidawithin the phylumApicomplexa,suggesting thatPerkinsusis the most primitive apicomplexan.[10]However, this placement was controversial, and was later disproven byphylogenetic analysesthat proved more evolutionary proximity todinoflagellatesthan to apicomplexans.[11]

In 1999, with the discovery ofParvilucifera,biologists Fredrik Norén andØjvind Moestrupseparated the class Perkinsea into a new phylumPerkinsozoa,within theAlveolata,to accommodate these two genera.[2]In 2002 a third genus was described,Cryptophagus(now renamedRastrimonas), but it was nevergenetically sequenced,which makes its phylogenetic position uncertain.[12]

In 2014 a new class was added to the phylum, known asSquirmidea.[13]However, phylogenetic analyses later demonstrated that squirmids are more closely related to the clade unitingApicomplexaandColpodellidathan to dinoflagellates and perkinsids, and its status as a class of Perkinsozoa was rejected, making Perkinsea the only remaining class.[14][15]

Phylogeny

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Colponemids

Simplified cladogram of Alveolata based on 2023 phylogenomic analyses.[14][15]

Perkinsids are amonophyleticgroup (orclade) ofAlveolata,a large group of ecologically diverse protists such asdinoflagellates,ciliates,apicomplexansandchrompodellids,all characterized by the presence ofcortical alveolibelow theircell membrane.In particular, perkinsids are thesister groupof dinoflagellates, together forming a clade known asDinozoa.[16]Both groups, along with apicomplexans and their closest relatives, compose a clade known asMyzozoa.[14][15]

Classification

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As of 2023, the order-level classification of perkinsids remains ambiguous, and orders are very sparsely used. The familiesPararosariidaeandParviluciferaceaehave no assigned parent order,[4][5]although one author,Thomas Cavalier-Smith,previously placedParviluciferawithin the orderRastrimonadida,along withRastrimonas.[17]This has not been supported by any other author, and both Rastrimonadida andRastrimonasare omitted from current classifications for lacking molecular data.[12]Similarly, the genusAcrocoelus,assigned directly to the orderAcrocoelidawithout a family,[17]is also excluded due to the absence of molecular data.[18]The genusMaranthos,althoughgenetically sequenced,is not assigned to any family or order.[19]The remaining groups,PerkinsidaeandXcellidae,are only sometimes assigned to order Perkinsida,[20][21]while in other instances their parent taxon is directly Perkinsea.[6][22]Taxonomic ranks (i.e. families, orders, classes...) are mostly omitted in favour of using onlyclades.[18]Shown below is the commonly accepted scheme, omitting order-level taxa:

Simplified cladogram of Perkinsea based on 2021-2023 phylogenetic analyses.[19][5][20]Environmental DNAclades are omitted, with the exception of clade 'NAG01' which groups possible infectious agents of tadpoles.[5]

As mentioned above, two genera have uncertain placement because they have never been genetically sequenced, but they have been assigned to Perkinsea on the basis of theirmorphology:[13]

References

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  1. ^abcdNorman D. Levine (1978)."Perkinsusgen. n. and Other New Taxa in the Protozoan Phylum Apicomplexa ".The Journal of Parasitology.64(3): 549.doi:10.2307/3279807.JSTOR3279807.
  2. ^abcdNorén, Fredrik; Moestrup, Øjvind; Rehnstam-Holm, Ann-Sofi (October 1999). "Parvilucifera infectansNorén et Moestrup gen. et sp. nov. (Perkinsozoa phylum nov.): a parasitic flagellate capable of killing toxic microalgae ".European Journal of Protistology.35(3): 233–254.doi:10.1016/S0932-4739(99)80001-7.
  3. ^Agostina V. Marano; Carmen L.A. Pires-Zottarelli; José I. de Souza; Sally L. Glocking; Eduardo Leaño; Claire M.M. Gachon; Martina Strittmatter; Frank H. Gleason (2012). "Chapter 11: Hyphochytriomycota, Oomycota and Perkinsozoa (Super-group Chromalveolata)". In E.B. Gareth Jones; Ka-Lai Pang (eds.).Marine Fungi and Fungal-like Organisms.Göttingen: De Gruyter. pp. 167–214.doi:10.1515/9783110264067.167.ISBN978-3-11-026406-7.
  4. ^abcAlbert Reñé; Elisabet Alacid; Isabel Ferrera; Esther Garcés (24 August 2017)."Evolutionary Trends of Perkinsozoa (Alveolata) Characters Based on Observations of Two New Genera of Parasitoids of dinoflagellates, Dinovorax gen. nov. and Snorkelia gen. nov".Frontiers in Microbiology.8:1594.doi:10.3389/FMICB.2017.01594.ISSN1664-302X.PMC5609580.PMID28970818.WikidataQ42163896.
  5. ^abcdefBoo Seong Jeon; Myung Gil Park (29 November 2021)."A Novel Parasitoid of Marine Dinoflagellates, Pararosarium dinoexitiosum gen. et sp. nov. (Perkinsozoa, Alveolata), Showing Characteristic Beaded Sporocytes".Frontiers in Microbiology.12:748092.doi:10.3389/FMICB.2021.748092.ISSN1664-302X.PMC8667275.PMID34912310.WikidataQ112637999.
  6. ^abcdMark A Freeman; Janina Fuss; Árni Kristmundsson; et al. (13 May 2017). "X-Cells Are Globally Distributed, Genetically Divergent Fish Parasites Related to Perkinsids and Dinoflagellates".Current Biology.27(11): 1645-1651.e3.doi:10.1016/J.CUB.2017.04.045.ISSN0960-9822.PMID28528902.WikidataQ36377210.
  7. ^Villalba, A.; et al. (2004)."Perkinsosis in molluscs: a review"(PDF).Aquatic Living Resources.17(4): 411–32.doi:10.1051/alr:2004050.
  8. ^abIsabel Fernández; Fernando Pardos; Jesús Benito; Nina Larissa Arroyo (1999). "Acrocoelus glossobalanigen. nov. et sp. nov., a protistan flagellate from the gut of the enteropneustGlossabalanus minutus".European Journal of Protistology.35(1): 55–65.doi:10.1016/S0932-4739(99)80022-4.
  9. ^Mangot, Jean-François; Debroas, Didier; Domaizon, Isabelle (16 May 2010). "Perkinsozoa, a well-known marine protozoan flagellate parasite group, newly identified in lacustrine systems: a review".Hydrobiologia.659(1): 37–48.doi:10.1007/s10750-010-0268-x.S2CID36522615.
  10. ^Norman D. Levine (1988).The Protozoan Phylum Apicomplexa.Vol. 1 (1 ed.). CRC Press.ISBN9781315897004.
  11. ^C. Louise Goggin; Stephen C. Barker (1993). "Phylogenetic position of the genusPerkinsus(Protista, Apicomplexa) based on small subunit ribosomal RNA ".Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology.60(1): 65–70.doi:10.1016/0166-6851(93)90029-w.PMID8366895.
  12. ^abSarah Itoïz; Sebastian Metz; Evelyne Derelle; Albert Reñé; Esther Garcés; David Bass; Philippe Soudant; Aurélie Chambouvet (1 January 2021)."Emerging Parasitic Protists: The Case of Perkinsea".Frontiers in Microbiology.12:735815.doi:10.3389/FMICB.2021.735815.ISSN1664-302X.PMC8792838.PMID35095782.WikidataQ111321231.
  13. ^abThomas Cavalier-Smith(30 July 2014). "Gregarine site-heterogeneous 18S rDNA trees, revision of gregarine higher classification, and the evolutionary diversification of Sporozoa".European Journal of Protistology.50(5): 472–495.doi:10.1016/J.EJOP.2014.07.002.ISSN0932-4739.PMID25238406.WikidataQ39198055.
  14. ^abcCorey C. Holt; Elisabeth Hehenberger; Denis V. Tikhonenkov; Victoria K. L. Jacko-Reynolds; Noriko Okamoto; Elizabeth C. Cooney; Nicholas A. T. Irwin;Patrick J. Keeling(3 November 2023)."Multiple parallel origins of parasitic Marine Alveolates".Nature Communications.14(1): 7049.doi:10.1038/S41467-023-42807-0.ISSN2041-1723.PMC10624901.PMID37923716.WikidataQ125317501.
  15. ^abcVarsha Mathur; Eric D. Salomaki; Kevin C. Wakeman; Ina Na; Waldan K. Kwong; Martin Kolísko;Patrick John Keeling(4 January 2023)."Reconstruction of Plastid Proteomes of Apicomplexans and Close Relatives Reveals the Major Evolutionary Outcomes of Cryptic Plastids".Molecular Biology and Evolution.40(1): msad002.doi:10.1093/MOLBEV/MSAD002.ISSN0737-4038.PMC9847631.PMID36610734.WikidataQ124684358.
  16. ^Thomas Cavalier-Smith(5 September 2017)."Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences".Protoplasma.255(1): 297–357.doi:10.1007/S00709-017-1147-3.ISSN0033-183X.PMC5756292.PMID28875267.WikidataQ47194626.
  17. ^abT. Cavalier-Smith; E.E. Chao (September 2004). "Protalveolate phylogeny and systematics and the origins of Sporozoa and dinoflagellates (phylum Myzozoa nom. nov.)".European Journal of Protistology.40(3): 185–212.doi:10.1016/J.EJOP.2004.01.002.ISSN0932-4739.WikidataQ54540793.
  18. ^abSina M. Adl; David Bass; Christopher E. Lane; et al. (1 January 2019)."Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes".Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology.66(1): 4–119.doi:10.1111/JEU.12691.ISSN1066-5234.PMC6492006.PMID30257078.WikidataQ57086550.
  19. ^abcAlbert Reñé; Elisabet Alacid; Rachele Gallisai; Aurelie Chambouvet; Alan D Fernández-Valero; Esther Garcés (5 August 2021)."New Perkinsea Parasitoids of Dinoflagellates Distantly Related to Parviluciferaceae Members".Frontiers in Microbiology.12:701196.doi:10.3389/FMICB.2021.701196.ISSN1664-302X.PMC8375308.PMID34421856.WikidataQ112639124.
  20. ^abcClive W. Evans; Selina Patel; Nicholas J. Matzke; Craig D. Millar (28 April 2023). "Cryoxcellia borchgrevinki gen. nov., sp. nov., a new parasitic X‑cell species in an Antarctic nototheniid fish, the bald notothen Trematomus borchgrevinki".Polar Biology.46:513–521.doi:10.1007/S00300-023-03132-W.ISSN0722-4060.WikidataQ124515389.
  21. ^abcEgil Karlsbakk; Cecilie Flatnes Nystøyl; Heidrun Plarre; Are Nylund (28 August 2021)."A novel protist parasite, Salmoxcellia vastator n. gen., n. sp. (Xcelliidae, Perkinsozoa), infecting farmed salmonids in Norway".Parasites & Vectors.14:431.doi:10.1186/S13071-021-04886-0.ISSN1756-3305.PMC8400403.PMID34454593.WikidataQ124515368.
  22. ^abThomas Desvignes; Henrik Lauridsen; Alejandro Valdivieso; et al. (15 July 2022). "A parasite outbreak in notothenioid fish in an Antarctic fjord".iScience.25:104588.doi:10.1016/J.ISCI.2022.104588.ISSN2589-0042.WikidataQ124515399.
  23. ^Boo Seong Jeon; Myung Gil Park (21 December 2018). "Tuberlatum coatsi gen. n., sp. n. (Alveolata, Perkinsozoa), a New Parasitoid with Short Germ Tubes Infecting Marine Dinoflagellates".Protist.170(1): 82–103.doi:10.1016/J.PROTIS.2018.12.003.ISSN1434-4610.PMID30797136.WikidataQ91851560.
  24. ^Brugerolle, G. (2003). "Apicomplexan parasiteCryptophagusrenamedRastrimonasgen. nov ".European Journal of Protistology.39(1): 101.doi:10.1078/0932-4739-00910.
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