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Precision-guided munition

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"Smart munition" redirects here. For weapon systems customized to a single person, seeSmart gun.

An Afghan Air ForceGBU-58guided bomb strikes aTalibancompound inFarah Province,Afghanistanon March 22, 2018.

Aprecision-guided munition(PGM), also called asmart weapon,smart munition,orsmart bomb,is a guidedmunitionintended to hit a specific target, to minimizecollateral damageand increaselethalityagainst intended targets.[1]During the Persian Gulf War guided munitions accounted for only 9% of weapons fired, but accounted for 75% of all successful hits. Despite guided weapons generally being used on more difficult targets, they were still 35 times more likely to destroy their targets per weapon dropped.[2]

Because the damage effects ofexplosive weaponsdecrease with distance due to an inverse cube law, even modest improvements in accuracy (hence reduction in miss distance) enable a target to be attacked with fewer or smaller bombs. Thus, even if someguided bombsmiss, fewer air crews are put at risk and the harm to civilians and the amount of collateral damage may be reduced.[a][b]

The advent of precision-guided munitions resulted in the renaming of older, low-technology bombs as "unguided bombs","dumb bombs ", or" iron bombs ".

Types

[edit]
Main article:Missile guidance
A laser-guidedGBU-24(BLU-109warhead variant) strikes its target

Recognizing the difficulty of hitting moving ships during theSpanish Civil War,[9]the Germans were first to develop steerable munitions, usingradio controlor wire guidance. The U.S. testedTV-guided (GB-4),[10]semi-active radar-guided (Bat), andinfrared-guided (Felix) weapons.

Inertial-guided

[edit]

TheCBU-107 Passive Attack Weaponis an air-droppedguided bombcontaining metal penetrator rods of various sizes. It was designed to attack targets where an explosive effect may be undesirable, such asfuelstorage tanksorchemical weaponstockpiles[11]incivilianareas.[12]

Radio-controlled

[edit]
Main article:Command guidance

The Germans were first to introduce PGMs in combat, withKG 100deploying the 3,100 lb (1,400 kg)MCLOS-guidanceFritz Xarmoredglide bomb,guided by theKehl-Straßburgradio guidance system,to successfully attack the ItalianbattleshipRomain 1943,[13]and the similarlyKehl-StraßburgMCLOS-guidedHenschel Hs 293rocket-boosted glide bomb (also in use since 1943, but only against lightly armored or unarmored ship targets).

The closestAlliedequivalents, both unpowered designs, were the 1,000 lb (450 kg) VB-1AZON(from "AZimuth ONly" control), used in both Europe and theCBI theater,and theUS Navy'sBat,primarily used in the Pacific Theater of World War II — the Navy's Bat was more advanced than either German PGM ordnance design or the USAAF's VB-1 AZON, in that it had its own on board,autonomous radar seeker systemto direct it to a target. In addition, the U.S. tested the rocket-propelledGargoyle,which never entered service.[14]Japanese PGMs—with the exception of theanti-shipair-launched, rocket-powered, human-pilotedYokosuka MXY-7 Ohka,"Kamikaze" flying bomb did not see combat in World War II.[15]

Prior to the war, the British experimented with radio-controlled remotely guided planes laden with explosives, such asLarynx.TheUnited States Army Air Forcesused similar techniques withOperation Aphrodite,but had few successes; the GermanMistel(Mistletoe) "parasite aircraft"was no more effective, guided by the human pilot flying the single-engined fighter mounted above the unmanned, explosive-laden twin-engined" flying bomb "below it, released in theMistel'sattack dive from the fighter.

The U.S. programs restarted in theKorean War.In the 1960s, theelectro-optical bomb(orcamera bomb) was reintroduced. They were equipped withtelevision camerasand flare sights, by which the bomb would be steered until the flare superimposed the target. The camera bombs transmitted a "bomb's eye view" of the target back to a controlling aircraft. An operator in this aircraft then transmitted control signals to steerable fins fitted to the bomb. Such weapons were used increasingly by theUSAFin the last few years of theVietnam Warbecause the political climate was increasingly intolerant of civilian casualties, and because it was possible to strike difficult targets (such as bridges) effectively with a single mission; theThanh Hoa Bridge,for instance, was attacked repeatedly with iron bombs, to no effect, only to be dropped in one mission with PGMs.

Although not as popular as the newerJDAMandJSOWweapons, or even the olderlaser-guided bombsystems, weapons like theAGM-62 WalleyeTV guidedbomb are still being used, in conjunction with theAAW-144Data Link Pod, onUS NavyF/A-18 Hornets.

Infrared-guided/electro-optical

[edit]
Main article:Infrared homing

In World War II, the U.S.National Defense Research Committeedeveloped the VB-6 Felix, which used infrared to home on ships. While it entered production in 1945, it was never employed operationally.[16]The first successful electro optical guided munition was theAGM-62 Walleyeduring the Vietnam war. It was a family of large glide bombs which could automatically track targets using contrast differences in the video feed. The original concept was created by engineer Norman Kay while tinkering with televisions as a hobby. It was based on a device which could track objects on a television screen and place a "blip" on them to indicate where it was aiming. The first test of the weapon on 29 January 1963 was a success, with the weapon making a direct hit on the target. It served successfully for three decades until the 1990s.[17][18]

TheRaytheonMaverickis the most common electro optical guided missile. As a heavy anti-tank missile it has among its various marks guidance systems such as electro-optical (AGM-65A), imaging infrared (AGM-65D), and laser homing (AGM-65E).[19]The first two, by guiding themselves based on the visual or IR scene of the target, arefire-and-forgetin that the pilot can release the weapon and it will guide itself to the target without further input, which allows the delivery aircraft to manoeuvre to escape return fire. The PakistaniNESCOMH-2 MUPSOWandH-4 MUPSOWis an electro-optical (IR imaging and television guided) is a drop and forget precision-guided glide bomb. The Israeli ElbitOpheris also an IR imaging "drop and forget" guided bomb that has been reported to be considerably cheaper than laser-homing bombs and can be used by any aircraft, not requiring specialized wiring for a laser designator or for another aircraft to illuminate the target. During NATO's air campaign in 1999 in Kosovo the new Italian AF AMX employed the Opher.[20]

Laser-guided

[edit]
Main article:Laser-guided bomb
BOLT-117,the world's firstlaser-guided bomb

In 1962, the US Army began research intolaserguidance systems and by 1967 the USAF had conducted a competitive evaluation leading to full development of the world's firstlaser-guided bomb,theBOLT-117,in 1968. All such bombs work in much the same way, relying on the target being illuminated, or "painted," by alaser target designatoron the ground or on an aircraft. They have the significant disadvantage of not being usable in poor weather where the target illumination cannot be seen, or where a target designator cannot get near the target. The laser designator sends its beam in a coded series of pulses so the bomb cannot be confused by an ordinary laser, and also so multiple designators can operate in reasonable proximity.

Originally the project began as a surface to air missile seeker developed byTexas Instruments.When Texas Instruments executive Glenn E. Penisten attempted to sell the new technology to the Air Force they inquired if it could instead be used as a ground attack system to overcome problems they were having with accuracy of bombing in Vietnam. After 6 attempts the weapon improved accuracy from 148 to 10 ft (50 to 3 m) and greatly exceeded the design requirements. The system was sent to Vietnam and performed well. Without the existence oftargeting podsthey had to be aimed using a hand held laser from the back seat of anF-4 Phantomaircraft, but still performed well. Eventually over 28,000 were dropped during the war.[2]

Diagram showing the operation of a laser-guided ammunition round. From a CIA report, 1986.

Laser-guided weapons did not become commonplace until the advent of themicrochip.They made their practical debut in Vietnam, where on 13 May 1972 they were used in the second successful attack on theThanh Hóa Bridge( "Dragon's Jaw" ). This structure had previously been the target of 800 American sorties[21](using unguided weapons) and was partially destroyed in each of two successful attacks, the other being on 27 April 1972 usingAGM-62 Walleyes.

They were used, though not on a large scale, by the British forces during the 1982Falklands War.[22]The first large-scale use of smart weapons came in the early 1990s during OperationDesert Stormwhen they were used by coalition forces againstIraq.Even so, most of the air-dropped ordnance used in that war was "dumb," although the percentages are biased by the large use of various (unguided)cluster bombs.Laser-guided weapons were used in large numbers during the 1999Kosovo War,but their effectiveness was often reduced by the poor weather conditions prevalent in the southern Balkans.

  • Pavewayis a series of laser-guided bombs made in the United States. Paveway II 500 lb (230 kg) LGBs (such asGBU-12) are a cheaper lightweight precision-guided munition (PGM) suitable for use against vehicles and other small targets, while a Paveway III 2,000 lb (910 kg) penetrator (such asGBU-24) is a more expensive weapon with improved aerodynamic efficiency suitable for use against high-value targets. GBU-12s were used to great effect in the firstGulf War,dropped fromF-111Faircraft to destroy Iraqi armored vehicles in a process informally referred to by pilots as "tank plinking."
  • AGM-123 Skipper IIwas a short-range laser-guided missile developed by theUnited States Navy.The Skipper was intended as ananti-ship weapon,capable of disabling the largest vessels with a 1,000 lb (450 kg) impact-fuzedwarhead.
It was composed of aMark 83 bombfitted with aPavewayguidance kit and two Mk 78 solid propellant rockets that fire upon launch.
The notable novelty is that the system does not use aerodynamic flight control (e.g. tail fins), butimpulse steeringwith mini-thrusters.[32]It has been dubbed as the Russian concept of impulse corrections (RCIC).[34][32]
  • TheRoketsan Ciritis a Turkishlaser guidedmissile.
  • TheGriffin Laser Guided Bomb(Griffin LGB) is alaser-guided bombsystem made byIsrael Aerospace Industries' MBT missile division. It is an add-on kit which is used to retrofit existingMark 82,Mark 83,andMark 84and other "dumb fire"gravity bombs,making them intolaser-guidedsmart bombs (with the option ofGPSguidance). Initial development completed in 1990.
  • Cirit is a 2.8 in (70 mm)guidedmissile system fitted with asemi-active laserhoming seeker. The seeker and guidance section is attached to a purpose-builtwarheadwith a Class 5Insensitive Munition (IM).The multipurpose warhead has a combinedarmour-piercingammunition with enhanced behind armoranti-personnelandincendiaryeffects. The engine is of reduced smoke design, with IM properties. It is connected to the rear section by a roll bearing that enables it to rotate in flight. There are four small stabilising surfaces at the very rear of the missile in front of the exhaust nozzle that ensures stable flight. Roketsan has developed a new launch pod and a new canister in which Cirit is delivered as an all-up round. The Cirit has a maximum effective guided range of 5.0 mi (8 km) with a high probability of hit on a 9.8 ft × 9.8 ft (3 m × 3 m) target at this range.[35][36]

Radar-guided

[edit]
Main article:radar guidance

The Lockheed-MartinHellfire IIlight-weight anti-tank weapon in one mark uses the radar on theBoeingAH-64D Apache Longbowto provide fire-and-forget guidance for that weapon.

Satellite-guided

[edit]
Main article:Satellite navigation systems
AF-22releases aJDAMfrom its center internal bay while flying at supersonic speed
HOPE/HOSBOof theLuftwaffewith a combination of GPS/INS and electro-optical guidance

Lessons learned during the first Gulf War showed the value of precision munitions, yet they also highlighted the difficulties in employing them—specifically when visibility of the ground or target from the air was degraded.[37]The problem of poor visibility does not affect satellite-guided weapons such asJoint Direct Attack Munition(JDAM) andJoint Stand-Off Weapon(JSOW), which make use of the United States'GPSsystem for guidance. This weapon can be employed in all weather conditions, without any need for ground support. Because it is possible tojamGPS, the guidance package reverts toinertial navigationin the event of GPS signal loss. Inertial navigation is significantly less accurate; the JDAM achieves a publishedCircular Error Probable(CEP) of 43 ft (13 m) under GPS guidance, but typically only 98 ft (30 m) under inertial guidance (with free fall times of 100 seconds or less).[38][39]

The Griffin conversion kit consists of a front "seeker" section and a set of steerable tailplanes. The resulting guided munition features "trajectory shaping", which allows the bomb to fall along a variety of trajectories – from a shallow angle to a verticaltop attackprofile. IAI publishes acircular error probablefigure for the weapon of 5 metres.[42]
KAB-500S-E.Russian GLONASS-Guided Bomb
  • TheGBU-57A/BMassiveOrdnancePenetrator(MOP) is aU.S. Air Force,precision-guided, 30,000-pound (14,000 kg) "bunker buster"bomb.[43]This is substantially larger than the deepest penetrating bunker busters previously available, the 5,000-pound (2,300 kg)GBU-28andGBU-37.
  • TheSMKB(Smart-MK-Bomb) is a Brazilian guidance kit that turns a standard 500-pound (230 kg)Mk 82or 1,000-pound (450 kg)Mk 83into a precision-guided weapon, respectively called SMKB-82 and SMKB-83. The kit provides extended range up to 31 mi (50 km) and are guided by an integratedinertial guidance systemcoupled to three satellites networks (GPS,GalileoandGLONASS), relying on wireless to handle the flow of data between the aircraft and the munition.
  • FT PGBis a family of Chinese satellite andInertial,guided munitions.
  • LS PGBis a family of Chinese GPS+INS or laser guided munitions.

The precision of these weapons is dependent both on the precision of the measurement system used for location determination and the precision in setting the coordinates of the target. The latter critically depends on intelligence information, not all of which is accurate. According to a CIA report, the accidentalUnited States bombing of the Chinese embassy in BelgradeduringOperation Allied Forceby NATO aircraft was attributed to faulty target information.[44]However, if the targeting informationisaccurate, satellite-guided weapons are significantly more likely to achieve a successful strike in any given weather conditions than any other type of precision-guided munition.

Advanced guidance concepts

[edit]

Responding to after-action reports from pilots who employed laser or satellite guided weapons,Boeingdeveloped a Laser JDAM (LJDAM) to provide both types of guidance in a single kit. Based on the existingJoint Direct Attack Munitionconfigurations, a laser guidance package is added to a GPS/INS-guided weapon to increase its overall accuracy.[45]Raytheon has developed the Enhanced Paveway family, which adds GPS/INS guidance to their Paveway family of laser-guidance packages.[46]These "hybrid" laser and GPS guided weapons permit the carriage of fewer weapons types, while retaining mission flexibility, because these weapons can be employed equally against moving and fixed targets, or targets of opportunity. For instance, a typical weapons load on an F-16 flying in theIraq Warincluded a single 2,000-pound (910 kg) JDAM and two 1,000-pound (450 kg) LGBs. With LJDAM, and the new GBU-39Small Diameter Bomb(SDB), these same aircraft can carry more bombs if necessary, and have the option of satellite or laser guidance for each weapon release.

The U.S. Navy leads development for a new 155 mm (6.1 in) artillery round called Moving Target Artillery Round, capable of destroying moving targets in GPS-denied environments ". The Office of Naval Research (ONR), the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division (NSWC Dahlgren), and theU.S. Army Research Laboratory(ARL) have been coordinating MTAR, with final development scheduled for 2019.[52]
Key features of the MTAR shell include extended range against moving targets, precision guidance and navigation without GPS, subsystem modularity, subsystem maturity, weapon system compatibility, restricted altitude, all-weather capability, reduced time of flight, and affordability. The new munition is intended for the Army or Marine Corps M777A1 howitzer, the M109A6 Paladin, and M109A7 Paladin Integrated Management (PIM) self-propelled 155 mm (6.1 in) artillery systems. The shell also would be for the Navy's Advanced Gun System (AGS) aboard the Zumwalt-class destroyer, and other future naval gun systems.[53]
  • Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M)
The U.S. Army is planning for GPS-denied environments with the new Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M). An enhancement of previous technologies, PGK-M will give U.S. forces the ability to continue launching precision strikes when GPS is compromised by the enemy.[54]
Picatinny Arsenal engineers are leading the development of a GPS alternative using image navigation for precision guidance of munitions, under the Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC). Other research partners include Draper Labs,U.S. Army Research Laboratory,Air Force Research Laboratoryand the Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center.[55]
The enhanced munition can navigate to a desired location, through a reference image used by the technology to reach the target.[55]The PGK-M includes a collection of ad hoc software programmable radio networks, various kinds of wave-relay connectivity technologies and navigational technology.[54]
  • PBK-500U Drelis a Russian guided jamming-resistant stealth glide bomb.

Cannon and mortar-launched guided projectiles

[edit]
Main article:Cannon-launched guided projectile

A cannon-launched guided projectile (CLGP), is fired fromartillery,ship's cannon,orarmored vehicles.Several agencies and organizations sponsored the CLGP programs. TheUnited States Navysponsored the Deadeye program, a laser-guided shell for its5 in (127 mm) guns[56]and a program to mate aPavewayguidance system to an 8 in (203 mm) shell[57]for the8 "/55 caliber Mark 71 gunin the 1970s (Photo). Other Navy efforts include theBTERM,ERGM,andLRLAPshells.

STRIX is fired like a conventional mortar round. The round contains aninfraredimaging sensor that it uses to guide itself onto anytankorarmoured fighting vehiclein the vicinity where it lands. The seeker is designed to ignore targets that are already burning.[61]

Guided small arms

[edit]
Main article:Precision-guided firearm

Precision-guidedsmall armsprototypes have been developed which use a laser designator to guide anelectronically actuated bulletto a target.[74]Another system in development uses a laser range finder to trigger an explosive small arms shell in proximity to a target. The U.S. Army plans to use such devices in the future.[75]

In 2008 theEXACTOprogram began underDARPAto develop a "fire and forget"smart sniper rifle system including a guided smart bullet and improved scope. The exact technologies of this smart bullet have not been released. EXACTO was test fired in 2014 and 2015 and results showing the bullet altered course to correct its path to its target were released.[76]

In 2012Sandia National Laboratoriesannounced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with alaser designator.The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.[77]

In mid-2016, Russia revealed it was developing a similar "smart bullet"weapon designed to hit targets at a distance of up to 6 mi (10 km).[78][79]

Pike[80]is a precision-guided mini-missile fired from an underslung grenade launcher.

Air burstgrenade launchers are a type of precision-guided weapons. Such grenade launchers can preprogram their grenades using afire-control systemto explode in the air above or beside the enemy.[81][82][83]

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"During Russia’s participation in the Syrian Civil War, only one of its aircraft, the Su-34 fighter-bomber, regularly used precision-guided munitions, Bronk explained, and even that aircraft often used unguided bombs and rockets.".[3]
  2. ^Connectivity toGLONASSmay be a factor in the lack of Russian PGM availability,[4]and the use of 3G/4G cell towers for Russian encrypted communications (Era) [5]during the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.This weakness was unearthed during the use of open communication ( "Russian commanders are sometimes piggybacking on Ukrainian cell phone networks to communicate" )[6]when FSB was discussing the deaths of their generals: Vitaly Gerasimov, killed 7 Mar 2022;[7]Andrei Sukhovetsky,killed 28 Feb 2022.[8][4]
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  4. ^abJamie Ross, who cites Christo Grozev of Bellingcat: (Tue, March 8, 2022, 5:32 AM)(7 March 2022) Russian Officer Complains About Dead General and Comms Meltdown in Intercepted CallFSB (Federal Security Service,successor agency to the KGB) officers discuss Gerasimov's death amid the destruction of 3G/4G cell towers in Ukraine, and the loss of Russian encrypted communications (Era), which compromised the FSB officer's sim-card-enabled phone call.
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