Proto-Dravidian language
| Proto-Dravidian | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Dravidian languages |
| Region | Eastern Iran, Pakistan, Western India andDeccan Plateau |
| Era | c. 4th–3rd m. BCE |
| Lower-order reconstructions |
|
| Part of a series on |
| Dravidianculture and history |
|---|
 |
| Portal:Dravidian civilizations |
Proto-Dravidianis thelinguistic reconstructionof the common ancestor of theDravidian languagesnative to theIndian subcontinent.[1]It is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian, andProto-South Dravidian,although the date of diversification is still debated.[2]
History[edit]
As aproto-language,Proto-Dravidian is not itself attested in historical records. Its modern conception is based solely onreconstruction.It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started evolving into various branches around 3rd-millennium BCE.[3][full citation needed]
Theorigin and territory of the Proto-Dravidian speakersis uncertain, but some suggestions have been made based on the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian vocabulary. The reconstruction has been done on the basis of cognate words present in the different branches (Northern,CentralandSouthern) of the Dravidian language family.[4]
According toFuller (2007),the botanical vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian is characteristic of thedry deciduous forestsof central and peninsular India. For the Southern Dravidians, this region extends fromSaurashtraandCentral IndiatoSouth India.It thus represents the general area in which the Dravidians were living before the separation of branches.[4]
According toFranklin Southworth(2005),[5]the Proto-Dravidian vocabulary is characteristic of a rural economy based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. However, there are some indications of a society more complex than a rural one:[6]
- Words for anupper storeyandbeam
- Metallurgy
- Trade
- Payment of dues (possibly taxes or contributions to religious ceremonies)
- Social stratification
This evidence is not sufficient to determine with certainty the territory of the Proto-Dravidians. These characteristics can be accommodated within multiple contemporary cultures, including:[6]
- 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures ofElamandMehrgarhand present-daywestern Rajasthan,Deccanand other parts of the peninsula.
- EarlyIndus Valley civilisationsites inPakistanand later ones in the Saurashtra (Sorath) area of present-dayGujarat.
- Asko Parpolaidentifies Proto-North Dravidians with theIndus Valley civilization(IVC) and theMeluhhapeople mentioned inSumerianrecords, and has suggested that the word "Meluhha" derives from the Dravidian wordsmel(u)-akam( "highland country, high abode" ).[7]
- Loan wordsidentified inSumeriansuch as the words forivoryandsesameare considered to be derived from Proto-Dravidian and spread from IVC toMesopotamiadue to trade.[8][9]
Phonology[edit]
Vowels[edit]
Proto-Dravidian contrasted between five short and long vowels:*a,*ā,*i,*ī,*u,*ū,*e,*ē,*o,*ō.The sequences*aiand*auare treated as*ayand*av(or *aw).[10]
Consonants[edit]
Proto-Dravidian has been reconstructed as having the following consonant phonemes:[11][12][13]
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasals | *m | *n | (*ṉ)[a] | *ṇ | *ñ | ||
| Plosive | *p | *t | *ṯ | *ṭ | *c | *k | |
| Semivowel | *w | *y | *H | ||||
| Rhotic | *r | *ẓ[b] | |||||
| Lateral | *l | *ḷ |
- ^reconstructed byP. S. Subrahmanyam
- ^may also be represented as ḻ or r̤
The singular alveolar plosive*ṯdeveloped into an alveolar trill/r/in many of the South and South Central languages, it later merged with the tap in many of them; Tulu has /d͡ʒ, d̪, ɾ/ as reflexes, Manda-Kui made it /d͡ʒ/ and Hill-Maria Gondi made it /ʁ/.*ṯṯand*nṯbecame /r̥, nr/ in Konda and [tr, ndr] in many Tamil dialects. Apart from them, other languages did not rhotacize it, instead either preserving them or merging it with other sets of stops like dentals in Kannada, retroflexes in Telugu or palatals in Manda-Kui and some languages of Kerala.[14]Central made all alveolars dental which is one of the features distinguishing it from South Central branch and North made it /r, s/.[13][15]For example, Tamilāṟu,Tuluāji,Naikisādi,Kuihāja;Tamilpuṟṟu,Tulupuñca,Kannadahuttu,Naikipuṭṭa,KondapuRi,Maltopute;Tamilonṟu,Tuluoñji,Pengoronje,Brahuiasi.
Velar nasal*ṅoccurred only before*kin Proto-Dravidian (as in many of its daughter languages). Therefore, it is not considered a separate phoneme in Proto-Dravidian. However, it attained phonemic status in languages like Malayalam,Gondi,KondaandPengobecause the original sequence*ṅkwas simplified to*ṅor*ṅṅ.[16]
The glottal fricative*Hhas been proposed byKrishnamurti (2003)to account for the Old Tamil Aytam (Āytam) and other Dravidian comparative phonological phenomena.
P. S. Subrahmanyamreconstructs 6 nasals for PD compared to 4 by Krishnamurti, who also does not reconstruct a laryngeal.[17]
The Northern Dravidian languagesKurukh,MaltoandBrahuicannot easily be derived from the traditional Proto-Dravidian phonological system.McAlpin (2003)proposes that they branched off from an earlier stage of Proto-Dravidian than the conventional reconstruction, which would apply only to the other languages. He suggests reconstructing a richer system of dorsal stop consonants:
| Early Proto-Dravidian | Late Proto-Dravidian (Proto-Non-North Dravidian) |
Proto-Kurukh-Malto | Brahui |
|---|---|---|---|
| *c | *c | *c | |
| *kʲ | *c | *k | k |
| *k | *k | *k | k |
| *q | *k | *q | x k / _i(ː) |
Numerals[edit]
Vocabulary[edit]
Crop plants[edit]
Below are some crop plants that have been found in the Southern Neolithic complex ofKarnatakaandAndhra Pradesh,along with their Proto-Dravidian or Proto-South Dravidian reconstructions bySouthworth (2005).In some cases, the proto-form glosses differ from the species identified from archaeological sites. For example, the two Southern Neolithic staple grassesBrachiariaramosaandSetaria verticillatarespectively correspond to the reconstructed Proto-Dravidian forms forSorghum vulgareandSetaria italicaas early Dravidian speakers shifted tomilletspecies that were later introduced to South India.[5]
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| horsegram | Macrotyloma uniflorum | Late Proto-Dravidian | *koḷ | horsegram |
| green gram | Vigna radiata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *pac-Vt/Vl | green gram |
| black gram | Vignacf.mungo;Vigna trilobata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *uẓ-untu, *min(t) | black gram |
| hyacinth bean | Lablab purpureus | Proto-Tamil | *ava-rai | Dolichos lablab |
| pigeonpea | Cajanus cajan | Late Proto-Dravidian | *tu-var | pigeonpea |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| browntop millet | Brachiaria ramosa | Late Proto-Dravidian | *conna-l | sorghum |
| bristly foxtail | Setaria verticillata | Late Proto-Dravidian | *kot-V | Setaria italica |
| sawa millet | Echinochloacf.colona | |||
| yellow foxtail | Setaria pumila | |||
| little millet | Panicum sumatrense | |||
| kodo millet | Paspalum scrobiculatum | Proto-South Dravidian | *(v)ār/ar-Vk | pearl millet |
| millet | Pennisetum glaucum | Proto-South Dravidian | *kam-pu | bulrush millet |
| finger millet | Eleusine coracana | Proto-South Dravidian | *ira(k) | ragi |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| barley | Hordeum vulgare | |||
| wheat | Triticum | Late Proto-Dravidian? | *kūli | wheat |
| rice | Oryzasp. | Late Proto-Dravidian? | *(v)ar-iñci | rice |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| jujube | Zizyphussp. | Late Proto-Dravidian | *irak- | jujube |
| fig | Ficussp. | Late Proto-Dravidian | *cuv- | fig |
| java plum | cf.Syzygium cumini | Late Proto-Dravidian | *ñēr-al | jambu |
| globe cucumber | Cucumiscf.prophetarum | |||
| luffa | cf.Luffa cylindrica | Late Proto-Dravidian | *pīr | |
| flax | Linum usitatissimum | Proto-South Dravidian | *ak-V-ce | |
| cotton | Gossypiumsp. | Proto-South Dravidian | *par-utti | |
| okra | Abelmoschussp. | |||
| parenchymafragments | Early Proto-Dravidian | *kic-ampu | ||
| date palm | Phoenixsp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *cīntu |
| Common name | Scientific name | Reconstruction level | Proto-form | Gloss of proto-form |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| onion/garlic | Alliumsp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *uḷḷi | |
| eggplant | Solanumsp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *vaẓ-Vt | |
| sesame | Sesamum indicum | Late Proto-Dravidian | *nū(v)- | sesame |
| sugarcane | Saccharumsp. | Early Proto-Dravidian | *cet-Vkk | |
| hemp | Cannabissp. | Late Proto-Dravidian? | *boy-Vl |
Basic vocabulary[edit]
Basic vocabulary of Proto-Dravidian selected fromKrishnamurti (2003):[18]
| gloss | Proto-Dravidian |
|---|---|
| one | *on-ṯu |
| one (adj.) | *ōr-/*or-V- |
| two | *īr/*ir-V |
| three (adj.) | *muH-/*mū- |
| four (adj.) | *nāl/*nal-V- |
| five (adj.) | *cay-m- |
| six (adj.) | *caṯ-V |
| seven (adj.) | *eẓ-V |
| eight (adj.) | *eṇ |
| nine, 9/10 | *toḷ-/*toṇ- |
| ten minus one | *on-patV |
| ten (adj.) | *paH- |
| head, hair, top | *tal-ay |
| cheek | *kap-Vḷ |
| eye | *kaṇ |
| eyeball | *kuṭ-V/*kuṇṭ-V |
| ear | *kew-i |
| nose, beak | *mū-nk(k)u/-nc- |
| tooth | *pal |
| mouth[a] | *wāy |
| hand, arm | *kay |
| leg, foot | *kāl |
| heart, kidney | *kuṇṭV |
| liver | *taẓ-Vnk-/-nkk |
| milk, breast | *pāl |
| bone | *el-V-mp/-nk |
| bone marrow | *mūḷ-V- |
| excrement | *piy/*pī |
| house | *il |
| husband | *maẓc-a- |
| man, husband | *māy-tt-/*mā-cc- |
| woman | *peṇ |
| name | *pin-cc-Vr |
| sky | *wān-am |
| sun | *en-ṯ- |
| sun | *pōẓ/*poẓ-u-tu |
| moon, moonlight | *nel-a-nc/-ncc |
| month | *nel-V- |
| star | *cukk-V |
| star | *miHn |
| cloud | *muy-il |
| water | *nīr |
| river, stream | *yĀtu |
| lake | *kuḷ-am/-Vnc- |
| sea, ocean | *kaṭ-al |
| stone | *kal |
| wind | *waḷi |
| day | *nāḷ |
| night | *nāḷ/*naḷ-V- |
| year | *yAṇṭ-u |
| tree | *mar-am/-an |
| fruit, pod | *kāy |
| forest | *kā(-n), kā-ṭu |
| grass | *pul |
| thatched grass | *pīr |
| dog | *naH-ay/-att/-kuẓi |
| animal, beast, deer | *mā |
| deer | *kur-V-c- |
| tiger | *pul-i |
| rat | *el-i |
| snake | *pāmpu |
| meat | *iṯ-ay-cci |
| meat | *ū/*uy |
| oil, ghee | *ney |
| fish | *mīn |
| louse | *pēn |
| mosquito | *nuẓ-Vḷ/-nk- |
| wing | *ceṯ-ank-/-ankk- |
| black | *cir- |
| white | *weḷ/*weṇ |
| red | *kem |
| sweet (adj./n.) | *in- |
| sour | *puḷ- |
| bitter; bitterness | *kac (> kay) |
| to eat, drink | *uHṇ-/*ūṇ- |
| to eat | *tiHn- |
| to come | *waH-/*waH-r |
| to walk | *naṭ-a |
| to give | *ciy-/*cī- |
| to die | *caH- ~ *ceH- |
| to sleep | *kū-r- |
| to sleep | *tuñc- |
| to count | *eṇ |
- ^Also 'edge, beak, mouth of vessel, aperture, blade of sword'.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^Andronov 2003,p. 299.
- ^Krishnamurti 2003,p. 492.
- ^History and Archaeology. vol. 1, no. 1–2.Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad. 1980. p. 234.OCLC11579254.
- ^abMcIntosh 2008,p. 353.
- ^abSouthworth 2005.
- ^abMcIntosh 2008,p. 353-354.
- ^Parpola & Parpola 1975,p. 217-225.
- ^McIntosh 2008,p. 354.
- ^Ansumali Mukhopadhyay 2021.
- ^Baldi 1990,p. 342.
- ^Subrahmanyam 1983,p. 40.
- ^Zvelebil 1990.
- ^abKrishnamurti 2003.
- ^http://www.languageinindia.com/july2013/ravisankarkeralatriballanguages.pdf
- ^https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0012142_Dravidian_comparative_phonology.pdf
- ^Subrahmanyam 1983.
- ^Prema, S.; Sreekumar, P."Professor P. S. Subrahmanyam, (1939-2016) the distinguished Dravidian linguist: A short profile and his publications".
- ^Krishnamurti 2003,p.[page needed].
Works cited[edit]
- Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich (2003).A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages.Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.ISBN978-3-447-04455-4.
- Ansumali Mukhopadhyay, Bahata (December 2021)."Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics".Humanities and Social Sciences Communications.8(1): 193.doi:10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w.S2CID236901972.
- Baldi, Philip(1990).Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology.Walter de Gruyter. p. 342.ISBN3-11-011908-0.
- Fuller, Dorian Q. (2007). "Non-human genetics, agricultural origins and historical linguistics in South Asia".The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia.Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. pp. 393–443.doi:10.1007/1-4020-5562-5_18.ISBN978-1-4020-5561-4.
- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju(2003).The Dravidian Languages.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-43533-8.
- McAlpin, David W. (2003). "Velars, Uvulars and the Northern Dravidian hypothesis".Journal of the American Oriental Society.123(3): 521–546.doi:10.2307/3217749.JSTOR3217749.
- McIntosh, Jane (2008).The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-907-2.
- Parpola, Asko; Parpola, Simo (1975)."On the relationship of the Sumerian toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit mleccha".Studia Orientalia.46:205–238.
- Southworth, Franklin C.(2005).Proto-Dravidian Agriculture(PDF).7th ESCA Round Table Conference, Kyoto, June 2005.
- Subrahmanyam, P.S. (1983).Dravidian Comparative Phonology.Annamalai University.
- Zvelebil, Kamil(1990).Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction.Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture.
Further reading[edit]
- Andronov, M. (1964). "Lexicostatistic analysis of the chronology of disintegration of proto-Dravidian".Indo-Iranian Journal.7(2): 170–186.doi:10.1163/000000064791616433.S2CID161229771.
- Blažek, Václav(2009)."Dravidian numeral"(PDF).Journal of Language Relationship.1:69–80.
- Chandrasekaran, Periannan (7 January 2016). "Pleonastic Compounding: An Ancient Dravidian Word Structure".Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies.18(1): 1–59 Seiten.doi:10.11588/ejvs.2011.1.319.
- Emeneau, M. B. (April 1988). "Proto-Dravidian *c- and Its Developments".Journal of the American Oriental Society.108(2): 239–268.doi:10.2307/603651.JSTOR603651.
- Kobayashi, Masato (2021)."Viewing Proto-Dravidian from the Northeast".Journal of the American Oriental Society.140(2): 467–482.doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.2.0467.S2CID226670756..
- Kolipakam, Vishnupriya; Jordan, Fiona M.; Dunn, Michael; Greenhill, Simon J.; Bouckaert, Remco; Gray, Russell D.; Verkerk, Annemarie (March 2018)."A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family".Royal Society Open Science.5(3): 171504.Bibcode:2018RSOS....571504K.doi:10.1098/rsos.171504.PMC5882685.PMID29657761.S2CID4844024.
- Sankaran, C. R. (1939). "Reconstruction of the Proto-Dravidian Pronouns".Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute.1(1): 96–105.JSTOR42929233.
- Smirnitskaya, Anna (2024)."Nominations for siblings: Proto-Dravidian reconstruction and borrowability".Journal of Language Relationship.21(3–4): 201–223.doi:10.31826/jlr-2024-213-406.
- Southworth, Franklin(December 2011)."Rice in Dravidian".Rice.4(3–4): 142–148.Bibcode:2011Rice....4..142S.doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9076-9.S2CID12983737.
- Subramoniam, V. I. (1968). "A Problem in the Reconstruction of the Proto Dravidian Nasal Phonemes".Pratidanam: Indian, Iranian, and Indo-European studies presented to Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper on his sixtieth birthday.pp. 344–358.doi:10.1515/9783112415306-047.ISBN9783112415306.
- Subrahmanyam, P.S. (2006). "Proto-Dravidian Short, High, and Mid Vowels: Mergers in South Dravidian and Telugu-Kuwi".Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute.66/67: 291–303.JSTOR42931454.
- Wells, Bryan K.; Fuls, Andreas (2015). "Proto-Dravidian and the Indus Script".The Archaeology and Epigraphy of Indus Writing.Archaeopress. pp. 77–99.ISBN978-1-78491-046-4.JSTORj.ctvr43jmf.14.
External links[edit]
- T. Burrow (1984).Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, 2nd Edition.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-864326-5.Retrieved2008-10-26.