Proto-Iranian language
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| Proto-Iranian | |
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| PIr, Proto-Iranic | |
| Reconstruction of | Iranian languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
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Proto-IranianorProto-Iranic[1]is thereconstructedproto-languageof theIranian languagesbranch ofIndo-European languagefamily and thus the ancestor of theIranian languagessuch asPersian,Pashto,Sogdian,Zazaki,Ossetian,Mazandarani,Kurdish,Talyshand others. Its speakers, the hypotheticalProto-Iranians,are assumed to have lived in the2nd millennium BCand are usually connected with theAndronovoarchaeological horizon (seeIndo-Iranians).
Proto-Iranian was asatem languagedescended from theProto-Indo-Iranian language,which in turn, came from theProto-Indo-European language.It was likely removed less than a millennium from theAvestanlanguage, and less than two millennia from Proto-Indo-European.[2]
Dialects
[edit]Skjærvøpostulates that there were at least four dialects that initially developed out of Proto-Iranian, two of which are attested by texts:[3]
- Old Northwest Iranian(unattested, ancestor ofOssetian)
- Old Northeast Iranian(unattested, ancestor of Middle IranianKhotaneseand modernWakhi)
- Old Central Iranian(attested, includesAvestanandMedian,ancestor of most modern Iranian languages)
- Old Southwest Iranian(attested, includesOld Persian,ancestor ofmodern Persian)
Note that different terminology is used for the modern languages: Ossetian has often been classified as a "Northeast Iranian" language, while "Northwest Iranian" usually refers to languages to the northwest of Persian, such asZazaor theCaspian languages.
Phonological correspondences
[edit]| PIE[4] | Av | PIE | Av | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *p | → | p | *ph₂tḗr"father" | pitar-"father" |
| *bʰ | → | b | *bʰréh₂tēr"brother" | bratar-"brother" |
| *t | → | t | *túh₂"thou" | tū-"thou" |
| *d | → | d | *dóru"wood" | dāuru"wood" |
| *dʰ | → | d | *dʰoHneh₂-"grain" | dana-"grain" |
| *ḱ | → | s | *déḱm̥t"ten" | dasa"ten" |
| *ǵ | → | z | *ǵónu"knee" | zānu"knee" |
| *ǵʰ | → | z | *ǵʰimós"cold" | ziiā̊"winterstorm" |
| *k | → | x ~ c | *kruh₂rós"bloody" | xrūda"bloody" |
| *g | → | g ~ z | *h₂éuges-"strength" | aojah"strength" |
| *gʰ | → | g ~ z | *dl̥h₁gʰós"long" | darəga-"long" |
| *kʷ | → | k ~ c | *kʷós"who" | kō"who" |
| *gʷ | → | g ~ j | *gʷou-"cow" | gao-"cow" |
| Proto-Iranian | Avestan[5] | Old Persian | Persian | Zaza | Kurdish | Vedic Sanskrit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *pHtā́ "father"[6][7][8] | pitār | pidar | پدرpedār | pi/pêr | bav | pitā́ |
| *máHtā "mother"[a][9][10] | mātar | mādar | مادرmādar | ma/mare | dayk | mātár- |
| *Hácwah 'horse' | aspa | asa(native word)[11] | اسبasb(< Median) | astor | hesp | áśva |
| *bagáh 'portion, part' | baγa | baga(god) | بغbagh(seen in بغداد) | parçe | bhága | |
| *bráHtā 'brother' | brātar | brātā | برادرbarâdar | bırar | bira(der) | bhrā́tr̥ |
| *búHmiš 'earth, land' | būmi | būmiš | بومbum | bûm | bhū́mi | |
| *mártyah 'mortal, man' | maṣ̌iia | martiya | مردmard(man) | merde, merdım | mêr(d) (man) | mártya |
| *mā́Hah 'moon' | mā̊ | māha | ماهmâh(moon, month) | aşme | mang (moon), meh (month) | mā́sa |
| *wáhr̥ 'spring' | vaŋri | vahara | بهارbahâr | wesar | bihar | vāsara'morning' |
| *Hr̥táh 'truth' | aša | arta | راستrâst(correct) | raşt | rast | r̥tá |
| *drúkš 'falsehood' | druj | drauga | دروغdorugh(lie) | zûr | diro, derew (lie) | druh- |
| *háwmah 'pressed juice' | haoma | hauma-varga | هوم hum | hum | sóma |
Development into Old Iranian
[edit]The termOld Iranianrefers to the stage in Iranian history represented by the earliest written languages:AvestanandOld Persian.These two languages are usually considered to belong to different main branches of Iranian, and many of their similarities are found also in the other Iranian languages. Regardless, there are many arguments that many of these Old Iranian features may not have occurred yet in Proto-Iranian, and they may have instead spread across an Old Iranian dialect continuum already separated in dialects (seeWave theory). Additionally, most Iranian languages cannot be derived from either attested Old Iranian language: numerous unwritten Old Iranian dialects must have existed, whose descendants surface in the written record only later.
- Vocalization of laryngeals
The Proto-Indo-Europeanlaryngealconsonants are likely to have been retained quite late in the Indo-Iranian languages in at least some positions. However, the syllabic laryngeal (*H̥) was deleted in non-initial syllables.[12]
- *l > *r
This change is found widely across the Iranian languages, indeed Indo-Iranian as a whole: it appears also inVedic Sanskrit.Avestan has no **/l/ phoneme at all. Regardless many words, for which the other Indo-European languages indicate original *l, still show /l/ in several Iranian languages, including New Persian,KurdishandZazaki.These include e.g. Persianlab'lip',līz-'to lick',gulū'throat' (compare e.g. Latingula); Zazakilü'fox' (compare e.g. Latinvulpēs). This preservation is however not systematic, and likely has been mostly diminished through interdialectal loaning ofr-forms, and in some cases extended by the loaning of words from smaller western Iranian languages into Persian.[13]
- *s > *h
Exactly, thisdebuccalizationoccurred when not preceded*k,*n,*p,*tor followed*t(which otherwise retained as*s).[12]This change occurs in all Iranian languages, but is regardless sometimes thought to be later than Proto-Iranian, based on the Old Persian nameHuša,thought to refer toSusa.
- Aspirated stops
The Proto-Indo-Iranian aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ and *kʰ were spirantized into *f, *θ and *x in most Iranian languages. However, they appear to be retained inParachi,varieties of Kurdish, and theSaka languages(Khotanese and Tumshuqese, but notWakhiwhich retains the fricatives); and to have merged with the voiceless aspirated stops inBalochi.In the case of Saka, secondary influence fromGāndhārī Prakritis likely.
- *c, *dz > *s, *z
The Proto-Indo-European palatovelars *ḱ, *ǵ (and *ǵʰ) were fronted to affricates *ć, *dź in Proto-Indo-Iranian (the affricate stage being preserved in theNuristani languages). The development in the Old Iranian period shows divergences: Avestan, as also most newer Iranian languages, show /s/ and /z/, while Old Persian shows /θ/ and /d/. (Word-initially, the former develops also into /s/ byMiddle Persian.) — The change *c > *s must be also newer than the development *s > *h, since this new *s was not affected by the previous change. The consonant cluster*ts(as in Proto-Indo-Iranian*matsya-"fish" ) has merged to*c,since both were identical in Iranian.[12]
- *cw > *sp
This change also clearly fails to apply to all Iranian languages. Old Persian with its descendants shows /s/, possibly likewise Kurdish and Balochi.[14]The Saka languages show /š/. All other Iranian languages have /sp/, or a further descendant (e.g. /fs/ inOssetian).
- *θr > *c
This change is typical for Old Persian and its descendants, as opposed to Avestan and most languages first attested in the Middle or New Iranian periods. Kurdish and Balochi may again have shared this change as well.[14]
Notes
[edit]- ^Reflexes of the stem in daughter languages also refer to deified beings and deities within their respective mythologies/religions:Old EnglishMōdraniht('Night of the Mothers');CelticandGermanicMatres and Matronae(Latinfor 'Mothers and Matrons');LatvianMāte('Mother');GaulishDea Matrona('Divine Mother Goddess');SanskritMatrikas('Divine Mothers').
References
[edit]- ^Mario Liverani (4 December 2013).The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy.Taylor & Francis. pp. 170–171.ISBN978-1-134-75091-7.
- ^Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (2006).The Oxford Introduction to Proto Indo European and the Proto Indo European World.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0199287910.OCLC139999117.
- ^Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2009). "Old Iranian". In Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.).The Iranian Languages.Routledge. pp. 50–51.
- ^Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997).Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.London: Fitzroy Dearborn.ISBN1884964982.OCLC37931209.
- ^Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2003)."Glossary".An Introduction to Young Avestan.
- ^Dnghu, p. 2394.
- ^Pokorny, p. 829.
- ^Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 210.
- ^Dnghu, pp. 1993-1994.
- ^Pokorny, pp. 700-701.
- ^Fortson, Benjamin (2004).Indo-European language and Culture: An Introduction.Wiley-Blackwell. p. 238.ISBN978-1-4051-0316-9.
- ^abcCathcart 2015,p. 9
- ^Schwarz, Martin (2008). "Iranian*l,and some Persian and Zaza Etymologies ".Iran and the Caucasus.12(2): 281–287.doi:10.1163/157338408X406056.
- ^abKorn, Agnes (2003). "Balochi and the Concept of North-Western Iranian". In Jahani, Carina; Korn, Agnes (eds.).The Balochi and Their Neighbours. Ethnic and Linguistic Contact in Balochistan in Historical and Modern Times.Wiesbaden: Reichert. pp. 49–60.
Further reading
[edit]
- Cathcart, Chundra Aroor (2015).Iranian Dialectology and Dialectometry (PhD dissertation)(PDF).Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2019-04-12.
- Kontovas, Nicholas. "Reflexes of Proto-Iranic* w- as evidence for language contact." In: Tous les chemins mènent à Paris. Studies inspired by Agnes Korn. Murad Suleymanov & Dorian Pastor (eds). Wiesbaden: Reichert. pp. 93-106.
- Kümmel, Martin Joachim. "“Prothetic h-” in Khotanese and the reconstruction of Proto-Iranic."Script and Reconstruction in Linguistic History.